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ART'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A 



GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



BY JOHN S. HART, LL.D., 

LATE PRINCIPAL OF THE PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL ; A MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF CLASS BOOK OF POETRY, CLASS BOOK 

OF PROSE, AN EXPOSITION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 

UNITED STATES, AC, AC. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
v OBLISHED BY E. H. BUTLER & CO. 

1862. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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HART'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BY JOHN Sf HART, LL.D., 

LATE PRINCIPAL OP THE PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL; A MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF CLASS BOOK OF POETRY, CLASS BOOK 

OF PROSE, AN EXPOSITION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 

UNITED STATES, fcC, &C. 




J 

PHILADELPHIA: 

PUBLISHED BY E. H. BUTLER & CO. 

1862. 



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Chamber of the Controllers of Public Schools, 
First School District of Pennsylvania. 

Philadelphia, May 6th, 1862, 
At a meeting of the Controllers of Public Schools, held at their Chamber, on 
Tuesday, June 10th, 1845, the following Resolution was adopted : — 

Resolved, That Hart's English Grammar be introduced as a class book into the 
Grammar Schools of the District, 

From the Minutes, 

ROBERT J. HEMPHILL, 
Secretary. 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by 

E. H. BUTLER, 

In the Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the United States in and for the 

Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



MEARS & DUSENBERY, €. SHERMAN & SON, 

STEREOTYPERS AND ELECTROTYPERS. PRINTERS. 



x i V 



PREFACE. 



Grammar is like Arithmetic. It is based on scientific princi- 
ples, and for advanced students it deals mainly with theoretical 
and abstract discussions. But for beginners, it requires posi- 
tive rules and definitions, and above all things, clear and copious 
examples. Examples are to the youthful student of Grammar 
what the sums are in Arithmetic. Without them, rules and 
definitions are apt to be a mere form of words. It is the 
examples and the practical exercises which give real life to the 
study for young minds. 

In this new and revised edition of my Grammar, besides 
availing myself of whatever new light the last seventeen years 
have thrown upon the principles of the science, I have given 
much greater prominence than before to the practical exercises. 
The examples, both those for illustration and those for practice, 
are more numerous than in the original edition; and they are 
in each case brought into immediate connection with the rule 
or the definition which they are intended to illustrate. A 
child of ordinary capacity can hardly go through these exercises 
without becoming thoroughly familiar with the principles which 
they exemplify. 

In a Grammar intended mainly as a school-book, all parade 
of learning is eminently out of place. The matured fruits of 
study should appear, but not its mere foliage. What the 
beginner requires is definite practical results, not the methods 
by whiiph the author has reached them. Yet Grammar is, of 
all subjects, the one on which it is neither safe nor modest to 
dogmatize. The man must be strangely ignorant of the wholo 

(3) 



IV PREFACE. 

subject, who can assume to be an infallible authority in lan- 
guage. No one knows so thoroughly, as he who has studied 
most profoundly, that on many points the science of Grammar 
is indeterminate, and that there may be fair grounds for differ- 
ences of opinion among authors. While, on such points, an 
author will give for the use of beginners plain, practical rules, 
he cannot but desire occasionally to state the different views 
entertained *by others, and the reasons which have led to the 
adoption of his own method. Some few discussions of disputed 
points, therefore, have necessarily found their way into this 
work. But, instead of being printed, as before, in immediate 
connection with the text, where they were found to distract the 
attention of the learner, they are all now placed by themselves 
in an Appendix. Such discussions are of course intended 
mainly for teachers, and for such a purpose are all the more 
available for being separated from the text and brought toge- 
ther in one body. 

Besides this book, which is complete in itself, I have issued 
another, which is introductory to it, called Part First. The 
Bules and Definitions in that book, so far as they are given, 
are the same as in this. But it contains only a small portion 
of the matter, and that the most elementary part, being intended 
for the use of those who begin the study while quite young. 
The exercises are entirely distinct from those in this book, and 
it has besides numerous explanations which are not deemed 
necessary here. Those who begin by studying Part First, will 
have nothing to unlearn in entering upon the study of the main 
work, and will find their progress in it much facilitated. At 
the same time, this main work is complete in itself, especially 
for those who do not begin the study of Grammar until they 
have arrived at some maturity of judgment, or until they have 
made some considerable progress in their other studies. 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 



1. Grammar is the science which treats of Lan- 
guage. 

2. Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Pro- 
sody. 

3. Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of 
Words, Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of 
Versification. 



FIRST PART. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

4. The first part of Grammar is called Ortho- 
graphy. 

5. Orthography treats of Letters. 

Note. — The treatment of the Points and of the other charac- 
ters used in writing, embracing the rules of Punctuation, belongs 

(7) 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.. 

properly to Orthography. But the most important of these 
rules cannot be understood by the pupil until he is familiar 
with the general principles of Grammar, particularly of Syntax. 
For convenience in teaching, therefore, this part of Orthography 
is treated of under the head of Prosody, although at some 
expense of logical accuracy. 

6. Letters are written characters or signs used to 
represent certain sounds of the human voice. 

7. The letters of any Language are called its 
Alphabet. 

8. The English Alphabet contains twenty-six let- 
ters. 

DIVISIONS OF THE LETTERS. 

9. Letters are divided into Vowels and Conso- 
nants. Consonants are subdivided into Mutes and 
Semi-vowels. 

10. A Vowel makes a perfect sound of itself. 

11. A Consonant cannot be fully sounded unless 
in connexion with a vowel. 

Note 1. — A Mute is the mere commencement or termination 
of the sound, on opening or closing the organs ; a Semi- vowel 
is a partial interruption or modification of the sound, caused by 
changing the position of the organs during utterance ; and a 
Yowel is the very sound itself prolonged without change. (For 
a fuller explanation, see Appendix 1.) 

Note 2. — The nature of the mute or semi-vowel in each case 
depends upon the particular part of the mouth or throat used 
to intercept the current of sound. Thus, if the sound is inter- 
cepted chiefly by the teeth, the letter is called a dental, &c. 
The nature of the vowel in* like manner depends upon the shape 
of the aperture while the sound is coming out. Thus, when 
the aperture is circular, or nearly so, we form the sound of o, 
&c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. tf 

Vowels. 

12. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes 
w and y. All the other letters are Consonants. 

Note. — W and y are consonants when they begin a word or 
syllable. 

13. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. 

14. A Proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
sounded ; as, ou in loud. An Improper diphthong is one in 
which only one vowel is sounded ; as, oa in boat. 

15. The Proper diphthongs are only two in number; namely, 
oi, oH. 

16. The Improper diphthongs are numerous, and need not 
be repeated. Strictly speaking, they are not diphthongs, but 
merely single vowel sounds preceded or followed by other 
vowels that are not sounded. 

17. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound ; 
as, ieu'm adieu. 

18. The triphthongs are only three in number, eau, ieu, iew. 
Like the improper diphthongs, they contain only one vowel 
sound. 

Note. — U after q is never counted as part of a diphthong, or 
triphthong. 

Consonants. 

19. The Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semi-vowels. . 

20. The Mutes and Semi-vowels may be distinguished both 
by the name and the sound. 

First, in naming the mutes, the accompanying vowel gene- 
rally follows ; as, pe, be ; in naming the semi-vowels, the ac- 
companying vowel precedes ; as, ef f el. 

Secondly, in sounding the mutes, the voice is stopped short, 
as in ap : in sounding the semi-vowels, the voice may be pro- 
longed, as in al. 

21. The mutes are p, 6, t, d, k, q, and c and g hard. 

22. The semi- vowels are/, h, j, I, m, n, r t s, v, x, z ; c and g 
soft ; and w and y when they are not vowels. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

23. Four of the semi-vowels, I, m, ?i, r, are also called 
Liquids. 

24. The consonants are sometimes divided according to the 
part of the vocal organs by which they are formed. The prin- 
cipal divisions of this sort are labials, dentals, palatals, gut- 
turals, nasals, and Unguals. 

25. Labials are formed chiefly by the lips, Dentals by the 
teeth, Palatals by the palate, Gutturals by the throat, Nasals by 
the nose, and Linguals by the tongue. 

26. The Labials are p, b, f v ; the Dentals t, d, s, z; the 
Palatals g soft and,; ; the Gutturals k, q, and c and g hard ; the 
Nasals m and n; and the Linguals I and r. 

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

Note. — The sounds of the letters can be learned by the ear 
only. The same letter often has several sounds. These are 
designated by the terms long, short, broad, fiat, hard, soft, 
rough, smooth, &c. 

Sounds of the Vowels. 

27. A has five sounds of its own, as in fate, fare, far, fall, 
fat. 

28. E has two sounds of its own, as in mete, met ; also the 
Found of a as in deign; of i, as in England ; and of o, as in 

29. I has two sounds of its own, as in pine, pin; also the 
jound of e as in machine ; of u, as in flirt ; and of y, as in filial. 

30. has four sounds of its own, as in no, not, nor, move; 
rIso the sound of u, as in son. 

31. U has three sounds of its own, as in tube, tub, full; also 
the sound of e, as in bury ; of i, as in busy ; and of w, as in 
languid. 

Sounds of the Diphthongs. 

32. QI and OU are always sounded as in loin, loud. 

33. OY and OW are sounded like ox and ou. (See Appeff 
iix 2.) 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

Sounds of the Consonants. 

34. B, H, L, M, V, and Y, have each a sound of their own, 
and are sometimes silent. 

35. C has the sound of Jc, as in came; of s, as in centre; of 
sh, as in social; of z, as in suffice ; and is sometimes silent, as 
in victuals. 

36. C is sounded hard like Jc before a. o, u, as in cake, colt, 
cup ; soft like s before e, i, y, as in cent, cider, cypress. 

37. C before e, i, and y, followed by another vowel, has the 
sound of sh, as in ocean. 

38. C before a consonant or at the end of a syllable, is always 
sounded hard ; as in crawl, rubric. 

39. CII has the sound of tsli in words purely English, as in 
chin; of sh in words derived from the French, as in chaise; 
and of Jc in words derived from the Hebrew, Greek, or other 
ancient languages, as in cJwrus, CJialdee. 

40. In arcli and its compounds, cJi before a consonant is 
always sounded like tsJi, as in archbisJiop ; but before a vowel 
it is sounded sometimes like tsli, and sometimes like Jc, as in 
arcJi-enemy, archangel. 

41. D has its own sound, as in drum ; the sound of j, as in 
soldier ; and sometimes, at the end of words, that of t, as in 
tripped. 

42. F has always its own sound, as in from ; except in of, 
where it has the sound of v. 

43. G has its own sound, which is hard; the sound of j, 
which is soft ; and is silent before n, as in gnaw. 

44. G is sounded hard before a, o, u, as in gave, go, gun ; but 
before e, i, y, it is sometimes hard and sometimes soft, as in 
beget, begin, boggy ; gem, giant, gypsum. 

45. G before a consonant, or at the end of a syllable, is 
always sounded hard. 

46. NG has a sound peculiar to itself, as in ring. 

47. GH has the sound of/, as in tough; of g hard, as in 
burgh ; or is silent, as in plough. 

48. J has always its own sound, as in joy ; except in halle- 
lujah, where it has the sound of y. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

49. K has but one sound, as in keep; it is never sounded 
before n, as in knife; and never doubled, except in Habakkuk. 

50. N has its own sound, as in man ; and the sound of ng, as 
in bank. 

51. P has always its own sound, as in pill; except in cup- 
board, when it is sounded like b. 

52. PII has the sound of f, as in philosophy ; of v, as in 
Stephen; or is silent, as in apophthegm. 

53. Q has the sound of k, and is always followed by u, as in 
quick. 

54. E has a rough sound, as in rock ; and a soft sound, as in 
bark. 

55. S has its own sound, as in sister ; the sound of z, as in 
rosy ; of sh, as in sugar; of zh, as in pleasure; and is silent, 
as in island. 

56. SC is sounded hard like sk before a, o, u, as in scale, 
scold, scuttle ; and soft like s before e, i, y, as in sceptre, science, 
scythe. 

57. SC also has the sound of sh, as in conscious. 

58. T has its own sound, as in take; the sound of sh, as 
in patient; of tsh, as in fustian; and is often silent, as in 
bustle. 

59. TH has two sounds of its own, as in thin, this. It has 
also the simple sound of t, as in Thomas. 

60. W has the sound of oo, as in ivater; and is often silent, 
as in answer. 

61. WH has the sound of hw, as in whale (sounded as if 
written liwale). 

62. X has the sound of z, as in Xenophon ; the sound of ks, 
as in exercise ; and of gz, as in exist. 

63. Z has its own sound, as in zeal ; the sound of zh, as in 
azure; and is silent, as in rendezvous. 

Note. — For more particular information respecting the sounds 
of the letters, the beginner should consult a Spelling Book, and 
the more advanced student his Dictionary. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

SPELLING. 

64. Spelling is putting letters together correctly, 
so as to form syllables and words. 

65. A word is a number of letters used together to represent 
some idea. 

Note. — A few words consist of only one letter each. 

66. A syllable is so much of a word as can be pronounced by 
one impulse of the voice, as con in contain. 

67. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; of 
two, a Dissyllable ; of three, a Trisyllable ; of more than 
three, a Polysyllable. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

I. Words ending in y. 

68. Kule. — Words ending in y preceded by a 
consonant; change y into i on taking an additional 
syllable ; as, fancy, fanc-i-ful (not fanc-y-ful). 

Note. — Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y 
on taking an additional syllable ; as, joy, joyful. Except daily 
(from day) ; laid, lain (from lay) ; paid (from pay) ; saith, 
said (from say) ; and their compounds, mislaid, unpaid, pre- 
paid, &c. 

Exception 1. — The y is sometimes changed into e, when the 
additional syllable is ous ; as, beaul-y, beaut-e-ous. 

Exception 2. — The y is not changed at all when the ad- 
ditional syllable begins with i; as, tarry, tarr-y-ing (not 
tarr-i-ing). 

Exercise. — Spell the words formed by adding ful to mercy, 
plenty ; by adding es and ing to cry, pry, apply ; by adding er 
and est to merry, sorry. 

Form the following compounds, and give the rule for each 
change: like-ly-hood, handy-craft, quarry-ed, journey -ed, beauty- 
ful, glory-ous, pity-ous, pity-fid, melody-ous, gay-ety. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II. Words ending in silent e. 

69. Eule. — Words ending in silent e, drop e on 
taking an additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; 
as, carej caring (not car-e-mg). 

Note. — Words ending in silent e retain the e on taking an 
additional syllable beginning with a consonant; as, care, care- 
ful. Except duly, truly, awful, wisdom, nursling, judgment, 
abridgment, acknowledgment, lodgment, argument. 

Exception 1. — Words ending in ce and ge, retain the e before 
terminations beginning with a, o, u; as, change, changeable. 
This is to preserve the soft sound of c and g. 

Exception 2. — Words ending in ie, after dropping the e, change 
the i into y on adding ing ; as, die, dy-ing ; untie, unty-ing. 
This is to prevent the doubling of the i (di-mg, unti-ing). 

Exception 3. — Dye (to color), hoe, and shoe likewise do not 
drop the e on adding ing ; as, dyeing, hoeing, shoeing. 

Exception 4.— Singe, swinge, and tinge do not drop e on 
adding* ing ; as, singeing, swingeing, tingeing. This is to dis- 
tinguish them from the corresponding forms of sing, swing, and 
ting. 

Exercise. — Spell the words formed by adding ing to bite, 
force, revive ; by adding able to admire, adore, deplore. 

Form the following compounds, and give the rule for each 
change: ripe-en, smoke-in g, lie-ing, sphere-ical, dispute-ant, tire- 
some, tie-ing, tie-ed, pave-ment, serve-ice-able, defense-ible, cure- 
able, marriage-able, trace-ing, trace-able, fame-ous, courage-ous, 
repulse-ive-ness . 

III. Words ending in 11. 

70. Eule. — Words ending in 11 drop one I on 
taking an additional syllable beginning with a con- 
sonant; as, full, ful-ness ; also sometimes on prefix- 
ing another word or syllable; as, full, hand-ful ; 
still, dis-til. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

Note. — Words ending in any other double letter are spelt 
in composition in the same manner as when alone ; as, stiff, 
stiffly. 

Exercise. — Spell the words formed by adding to all the 
words though, together ; by combining with and all; arm and 
full 

Form the following compounds, and give the rule for each 
change : fill-Jill, tall-er, buzz-lug, all-ways, well-come, stiff-ness, 
use-full, all-most. 

IY. Doubling the final Consonant. 

71. Eule. — Monosyllables, and words accented 
on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant^ 
preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant 
on taking an additional syllable beginning with a 
vowel; as, wit, ivitty ; begin, beginning. 

Note. — If the accent is not on the last syllable, or if a diph- 
thong precedes, the final consonant is not doubled on taking an 
additional syllable; as, offer, offering ; toil, toiling. 

Exception. — Some words ending in I, though not accented 
on the last syllable, double the I on taking an additional 
syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, travel, travelling, travel- 
ler, &c. 

Note. — This point is in dispute. Some authors double the I, 
as above, others do not, but spell the foregoing words travel, 
traveler, traveling. (See Appendix 3.) 

Exercise. — Spell the words formed by adding ing and ed to 
remit, impel; ist to drug, machine, novel, natural; er to rebel; 
ed to fulfil, rub, fail, refer; ing to squat, sail, gallop, hum; ant 
to assist; ent to excel; ine to adamant; ate to alien, origin; en 
to red, moist, fright ; ar to consul; er to propel; ous to moun- 
tain; y to mud, meal, sleep; ee to commit, absent, patent ; ard to 
slug, drunk. N. B.— In forming each combination, give the 
Rule applicable to it. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

V. The use of ei and ie. 

Eule. — In such, words as deceive, believe, and their 
compounds, a is used if the letter c precedes; as/ 
deceive, deceiving, deceit, deceitful, &c. But if any 
other letter precedes, ie is used ; as, believe believing, 
belief, &c. Except counterfeit. 

Exercise. — Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following 
words : retreive, perceive, acheive, repreive, concieve, seive, conciet. 



SECOND PART. 



ETYMOLOGY, 



72. The second part of Grammar is called Ety- 
mology. 

73. Etymology treats of "Words. 

74. Words are considered in regard to their 
Classification, Inflection, and Derivation. 

75. By the Classification of words is meant the 
arrangement of them into different classes, accord- 
ing to their signification and use. 

76. By the Inflection of words is meant the change 
of form which they undergo. 

77. By the Derivation of words is meant tracing 
them to their original form and meaning. 



ETYMOLOGY. 17 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

78. The different classes of words are called 
Parts of Speech. 

79. The Parts of Speech in English are nine ; 
namely, the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and 
Interjection. 

Definitions of the Parts of Speech. 

An Article is a word placed before a noun to, 
show whether the noun is used in a definite, or in 
an indefinite sense. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm. 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, an 
adjective^ or another adverb. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words 
and sentences. 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun 
to show its relation to some other word. 

An Interjection is a word used in making a 
sudden exclamation. 



AETICLES. 

80. An Article is a word placed before a noun 

to show whether the noun is used in a definite, or in 

an indefinite sense. 

2* B 



18 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

81. The Articles are a and the. 

82. A is the Indefinite Article, the is the Defi- 
nite Article. 

83. The Article a becomes an before a vowel 
sound; as, a man, an old man, an honest man. 

Note. — In determining whether to use a, or to use an, we 
should notice not the letter, but the real sound with which the 
next word begins. Sometimes a vowel at the beginning of a 
word has the sound of a consonant. Thus o in one is sounded 
as if the word began with w ; u in unit is sounded as if the 
word began with y, &c. In such cases the article should be a. 
On the other hand, the consonant h at the beginning of a 
word is sometimes not sounded, as in honest (pronounced onesi). 
In that case, the article should be an. The following words, 
and words derived from them, are some of those which begin 
with silent h; honor, honest, hour, heir, herb, humor, hamhle, 
hostler, &c. 

84. A or an means one, and is used only before 
the singular number ; as, a man, an apple. 

85. The is used before both numbers ; as, the 
man, the men. 

Note 1. — A and the may be considered the same as one and 
that, only abbreviated in form, and unemphatic in meaning. 
(See Appendix 4.) 

Note 2. — Some nouns in the singular without an article 
before them are taken in the widest sense for a whole species ; 
as, man, for mankind. This usage, however, is by no means 
universal. On the contrary, in many words, the article is used 
for this very purpose ; as, the horse, for horses in general. 

Exercise. — Name the appropriate indefinite article to be 
used before each of the following words : Ewe, watch, one-eyed 
man, European, umbrella, use, end, day, opening, engineer. 

Parsing Exercise. — Parse " an" in the sentence " Give me 
an apple." 

Model. — "An" is the indefinite article, placed before the 
noun " apple," to show that it is used in an indefinite sense. 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

Parse each of the articles in the following sentence: The 
right man in the right place is a rare and happy sight. 

NOUNS. 

86. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing; as, boy, school, book. 

Note 1. — The word thing in the foregoing definition is used 
in its widest sense, to signify not merely external objects which 
may he seen and handled, but whatever may be a subject of 
thought or discourse. 

Note 2. — Letters and words used technically are to be con- 
sidered nouns ; as, " C is sounded hard before a, o, u, &c. ;" 
" lb means pound." " Me is a pronoun." 

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

87. Nouns are divided into two classes, Proper, 
and Common. 

88. A Proper noun is a name given to only one 
of a class of objects ; as, John, London, Delaware. 

Note. — A Proper noun should always begin with a capital 
letter. 

89. A Common noun is a name given to any one 
of a class of objects ; as, boy, city, river. 

Exercises. — Which of the following nouns are Proper, and 
which Common ? Which should begin with a capital letter ? 
remark, austria, empire, country, holland, queen, victoria, 
illinois, poet, milton. 

Name five Common nouns, and five Proper nouns, besides 
those in the foregoing list. 

90. Common Nouns are further divided into Collective, 
Abstract, Verbal, and Diminutive. 

91. A Collective noun rs the name of a collection of objects 
considered as one ; as, army, crowd. A Collective noun is also 
called a noun of Multitude. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

92. An Abstract noun is one which denotes the name of a 
quality apart from the substance to which it belongs ; as, sweet- 
ness, beauty. Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives. 

93. A Verbal noun is one derived from a verb ; as, reading. 
It is also called a Participial noun. 

94. A Diminutive noun is one derived from another noun, 
and expressing some object of the same kind but smaller ; as, 
stream, streamlet; leaf, leaflet; hill, hillock; duck, duckling; 
goose, gosling. 

Exercises. — To what kind or class does each of the follow- 
ing Common nouns belong? islet, spelling, lambkin, hillock, 
acuteness, loyalty, flock, senate. 

Name three Collective nouns ; three Abstract nouns ; three 
Verbal nouns; three Diminutive nouns. 

ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. 

95. Nouns have the attributes of Gender, Number, Person, 
and Case. 

A noun has the attribute of Gender from its expressing sex ; 
of Number, from its expressing unity and plurality; of Person, 
from its expressing the relation of the noun to the speaker ; 
and of Case, from its expressing the relation of the noun to 
some verb, preposition, or other noun. 

GENDER. 

96. Gender is the distinction of nouns in regard 
to Sex. 

Note. — Pronouns also have gender. 

97. Nouns have three genders, Masculine, Femi- 
nine, and Neuter. 

98. The Masculine denotes objects of the male 
SEX; as, boy, man. 

99. The Feminine denotes objects of the female 
sex; as, girl, .ivoman. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



21 



Note. — Many nouns in the feminine end in ess ; as, poetess. 
Some end in ine; as, heroine. 

100. The Neuter denotes any thing without 
SEX; as, booh, river. 

101. There are three ways of distinguishing sex: 1, by the 
use of different words, as bachelor, maid ; 2. by difference of 
termination, as abbot, abbess; 3. by prefixing or affixing another 
word, as he-goat, she-goat ; landlord, landlady. 

1. Sex distinguished by different words. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


King 


queen 


Beau 


belle 


Lad 


lass 


Boar 


sow 


Lord 


lady 


Boy 


girl 


Male 


female 


Brother 


sister 


Man 


woman 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


miss 


Bull ^ 




Mister or Mr. 


Mistress or Mrs 


Bullock 
Ox 


- cow or heifer 


Milter 
Nephew 


spawn er 
neice 


Steer 




Papa 


mamma 


Cock 


hen 






Colt 


filly 


Bam 


ewe 


Dog 


bitch 


Singer 


songstress 


Drake 


duck 


Sir 


Y madam 


Earl 


countess 


Sire {the king) 


Father 


mother 


Sire, a horse 


dam 


Friar 


• nun 


Sloven 


slattern 


Monk 


Son 


daughter 


Gander 


goose 


Stag 


hind 


Hart 


roe 


Swain 


nymph 


Horse 


mare 


Uncle 


aunt 


Husband 


wife 


Wizard 


witch. 



2. Sex distinguished by difference of termination. 
Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 

Abbot abbess Administrator administratrix 

Actor actress Adulterer adulteress 



22 



ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 



Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Instructor 


instructress 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Author 


authoress 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Baron 


baroness 


Lion 


lioness 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Major 


mayoress 


Caterer 


cateress 


Monitor 


monitress 


Chanter 


chantress 


Negro 


n egress 


Conductor 


conductress 


Patron 


patroness 


Count 


countess 


Peer 


peeress 


Czar 


czarina 


Poet 


poetes 


Dauphin 


dauphiness 


Priest 


priestess 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Prince 


princess 


Director 


J directress 
1 directrix 


Prior 


prioress 


J_^ AA Kj V U\SX 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Don 


donna 


Protector 


protectress 


Duke 


duchess 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Elector 


electress 


Songster 


songstress 


Emperor 


empress 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Sultan 


r sultana 
1 sultaness 


Executor 


executrix 


Founder 


foundress 


Testator 


testatrix 


Giant 


giantess 


Tiger 


tigress 


Governor 


governess 


Traitor 


traitress 


Heir 


heiress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Heritor 


heritrix 


Tyrant 


ty ran ess 


Hero 


heroine 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Hunter 


huntress 


Votary 


votaress 


Host 


hostess 


Widower 


widow. 


3. Sex distinguished by prefixing or affixing 


another word. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine . 


Landlord 


landlady 


7icm-servant 


maidservant 


Gentleman 


gentleivoman 


ifaZe-child 


yemaZe-child. 


Archduke 


archduchess . 


Peacock 


-peahen 


Schoolmaster 


schoolmistress 


Cocfc-sparrow 


^en-sparrow 


lie-go at 


she-goat. 







ETYMOLOGY. 23 

Note 1. — Some nouns denote objects which may be either 
male or female ; as, bird, parent These are said to be of the 
Common gender. 

Note 2. — Most masculines have no corresponding feminine ; 
as, baker, brewer, &c. A few feminines have no corresponding 
masculines ; as, laundress, brunette, virago, &c. 

Note 3. — In some of the words which have both masculine 
and feminine terminations, the masculine is ordinarily used to 
denote both sexes, wherever the office or profession is the idea 
chiefly intended. When, however, it is the intention of the 
sentence to designate the sex of the individual spoken of, the 
change of termination is to be observed. Thus, " the poets of 
the age" would be correct when speaking of poets of both sexes ; 
but the " best poetess of the age" would be used when speaking 
of female writers only. 

Note 4. — In speaking of small animals, or of those whose 
sex is not known or not regarded, they are often considered as 
without sex: thus, we say of a cat "it is treacherous/' of an 
infant "it is beautiful," of a deer " it was killed." 

Note 5. — Sometimes inanimate objects are spoken of as if 
having life; as, "The ship has lost Iter anchor." In such 
instances, the noun is said to be personified, and instead of 
being neuter, as it otherwise would be, it becomes masculine or 
feminine. (See Appendix 5.) 

NUMBER. 

102. Number is the distinction of nouns in re- 
gard to Unity and Plukality. 

103. Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular 
and the Plural. 

104. The Singular denotes One ; the Plural More 
than ONE. 

Mode of forming the Plural, 

105. The Plural of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the Singular ; as, hook, boohs. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exception 1. — The Plural of nouns ending in s, sh, ch soft, 
x, and z, is formed by adding es ; as, miss, misses ; lash, lashes; 
church, churches ; box, boxes; topaz, topazes. 

Note. — Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming 
the plural. Some form the plural by adding es. Among these 
are cargo, negro, mulatto, desperado, tornado, volcano, flamingo, 
potato, tomato, calico, hero, motto, &c. Others form the plural 
by adding simply s. Among these are canto, cento, grotto, junto, 
portico, piano, solo, tyro, armadillo, halo, memento, proviso, salvo, 
sirocco, virtuoso, zero, cameo, trio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 
folio, &G. 

Exercise. — Spell the plural of negro, lynx, quiz, radish, 
patriarch, peach, mass, rhombus, trio, motto, halo. 

Exception 2. — The Plural of nouns ending in single/* or fe 
is formed by changing f or fe into ves; as, loaf, loaves; life, 
lives. 

Note 1. — The following form the plural according to the 
general rule, viz. : Brief, chief, grief, mischief, kerchief, hand- 
kerchief dwarf surf, turf, fife, strife, hoof roof, proof reproof, 
safe, scarf gulf 

Note 2. — Nouns in double f follow the general rule ; as, 
muff, muffs. Exc. staff, a stick, has staves in the plural ; staff, 
a body of officers, has staffs. The compounds of staff all have 
staffs in the plural ; as, flagstaff's, tipstaffs, distaffs, &c. 

Exercise. — Spell the plural of wharf, half, cuff, leaf, beef, 
calf, half, thief, wife. 

Exception 3. — The Plural of Nouns ending in y after a con- 
sonant, is formed by changing y into ies ; as, lady, ladies. 

Note. — Nouns ending in y after a vowel do not change y into 
ies, but form the plural by the general rule ; as, day, days. 

Exception 4. — The plural of letters, figures, and other cha- 
racters, used as nouns, is formed by adding the apostrophe and 
s ; as, "Dot your i J s and cross your fs" 

Exercise. — Spell the plural of the following : Ray, toy, 
chimney, tray, artery, Monday, February, buoy, boy, attorney, 
valley, money. 





ETYMOLOGY. 




106. 


Nouns irregular in the 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Tooth 


teeth 


Woman 


women 


Goose 


geese 


Child 


children 


Mouse 


mice 


Foot 


feet 


Louse 


lice 


Ox 


oxen. 







25 



Note 1. — The compounds of man form the plural in the same 
manner as the simple word ; as, alderman, aldermen. Care 
should be taken, however, not to confound compounds of the 
word man with words that accidentally end in those three 
letters. Thus statesman is really compounded of two words, 
states and man : but Turcoman, Mussulman, German, are simple 
words like talisman, ottoman (a kind of seat), and form the 
plural regularly, thus : Turcomans, Mussulmans, Germans, 
talismans, ottomans. 

Note 2. — Some nouns have in the plural two forms with 
different significations. 

Singular. Plural. 

Regular. Irregular. 

Brother brothers [of same family) brethren [of same society) 

Die dies [for coining) dice [for gaming) 

Genius geniuses [men of genius) genii [aerial spirits) 

Index indexes [tables of reference) in dices [signs in algebra) 

Penny pennies 

Pea peas 



Cow cows 

Sow sows 



_. . y pe._ 

distinct objects , • 



pe_ 

1 in the mass 



nee ) . 
> in 
ase J 

[■ thehind of animal. 



swine 



Plural of Compounds. 

Note 3. — Compounds, consisting of two or more words con- 
nected by a hyphen, are generally composed, either of two 
nouns of which one is used in the sense of an adjective, as 
man-trap, where man is really an adjective; or of a noun and 
adjective, as court-martial; or of a noun and some expression 
3 



26 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



having the force of an adjective, as father-in-law, where in-law 
has the force of an adjective as much as the word legal. In all 
these compounds, the sign of the plural is added to that part of 
the compound which really constitutes the noun, whether at 
the end or not ; thus, man-traps, courts-martial, fathers-in-law. 
In forming the possessive case, the rule is different, the sign of 
the possessive being uniformly added to the end of the compound 
expression : thus, father-in law, pi. fathers-in-law, poss. father- 
in-law's. 

Note 4. — The compounds of full form the plural regularly; 
thus, mouthful, moutlifuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls; bucketful, 
bucketfuls. 

Exercise. — Form the plural of the following: Man-of-war, 
man-eater, drum-major, major-general, sergeant- at-arms, hen- 
coop, pin-cushion, bucket-full. 



Plural of Foreign Words, 

107. Words adopted without change from foreign languages 
generally retain their original plurals. 

108. These words are now very numerous, particularly in 
works on science and the arts, and not a few are to be found in 
works of every description. Only a few of the most common 
can be given here. For the others, the learner should consult 
a dictionary. 

Phenomenon phenomena 

Alumnus alumni 

Focus foci 

Fungus fungi 

Radius radii 

Sarcophagus sarcophagi 

Stimulus stimuli 

Amanuensis amanuenses 

Analysis analyses 

Antithesis antitheses 

Axis axes 

Basis bases 



Formula 


formulae 


Nebula 


nebulse 


Addendum 


addenda 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Datum 


data 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Erratum 


errata 


Gymnasium 


gymnasia 


Stratum 


strata 


Automaton 


automata 


Criterion 


criteria 



ETYMOLOGY. 



27 



Crisis crises Vertex vertices 

Ellipsis ellipses -Vortex vortices 

Hypothesis hypotheses Monsieur messieurs 

Metamorphosis metamorphoses Madame mesdames 

Oasis oases Beau beaux 

Thesis theses Dilettante dilettanti, 

109. Some of these foreign words are so far domesticated in 
the language as to have the English form of the plural as well 
as their original one. Among these are the following : 



Singular. 
Cherub 


Foreign Plural. 
cherubim 


English Plural. 
cherubs 


Seraph 

Memorandum 

Bandit 


seraphim 

memoranda 

banditti 


seraphs . 

memorandums 

bandits 


Virtuoso 


virtuosi 


virtuosos. 



110. Some nouns are for the most part not used in the plural. 
Among these are the names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, 
sciences, abstract qualities, and of things that are either weighed 
or measured ; as, gold, industry, idleness, sculpture, geometry, 
wisdom, flour, milk. 

111. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Among these 
are annals, antipodes, archives, ashes, assets, clothes, measles, 
oats, tidings, victuals, wages ; also the names of things consist- 
ing of two parts, as, bellows, scissors, tongs, pantaloons, &c. 

112. Some nouns are alike in both numbers. Among these 
are deer, sheep, trout, salmon, &c. ; also several foreign words, 
as apparatus, series, species, &c. The singular of such words 
may generally be distinguished by the use of the indefinite 
article a or an; as, a seines, a deer, a trout, an apparatus, &c. 

113. Many nouns are sometimes alike in both numbers, and 
at other times have a regular form for the plural. Among these 
are head, brace, pair, couple, dozen, score, &c. Thus we say 
" He bought twenty dozen of them," and " He bought them in 
dozens." 

114. Some nouns are plural in form, but either singular or 
plural in meaning. Among them are amends, means, news, 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

riches, &c. ; also the names of certain sciences, as conies, optics, 
ethics, mathematics, &c. 

115. Means and amends are singular when they refer to only 
one object, plural when they refer to more than one. The 
singular mean is also used to signify strictly the middle between 
two extremes. News is rarely found with a plural signification. 
Riches has both a singular and a plural signification. Alms is 
strictly singular. (See Appendix 6.) 

PERSON. 

116. Person is the distinction of nouns in their 
relation to the speaker. 

117. Nouns have three persons, First, Second, 
and Third. 

118. The First person is the Speaker, the Second 
is the one spoken to, the Third is the one spoken 
of. 

Note. — Instances of the use of nouns in the first Person are 
not common, and as no change in the form of the word takes 
place in consequence of the person, some grammarians omit it 
altogether in speaking of nouns. (See Appendix 7.) 

CASE. 

119. Case distinguishes the relation of a noun to 
some verb, preposition, or other noun. 

120. Nouns have three cases, Nominative, Pos- 
sessive, and Objective. 

Note. — The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes 
three ideas, viz.: those of subject, object, and ownership. A 
noun may be to a verb in the relation of its subject, or that of 
which the assertion is made, and then it is in the nominative 
case ; or it may be to a verb or preposition in the relation of an 
object, or that on which some action or relation terminates, and 
then it is in the objective case ; or it may have to some other 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

noun the relation of ownership or possession, and then it is in 
the possessive case. According to this view of the subject, 

121. The Nominative Case is that in which a noun 

IS THE SUBJECT OF A VERB. 

122. The Possessive Case is that which denotes 

OWNERSHIP OR POSSESSION. 

123. The Objective Case is that in which the 

NOUN IS THE OBJECT OF SOME VERB OR PREPOSITION. 
Note. — Pronouns have cases, in the same manner as nouns. 

How to find the Nominative. — The subject of the verb may 
be found by putting "who" or "what" before the verb and 
asking the question. Example : " A man bought a hat." Who 
bought? Ans. Man. Therefore, "man" is the subject of the 
verb " bought," and is in the nominative case. 

Exercises. — Find the subject of the verb in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

The teacher of the second division assigned to the first section 
a lesson in geography. 

A lesson in geography was assigned to the whole division. 

Idleness in youth brings misery in old age. 

Lying leads to other bad habits. 

How to find the Objective. — The object of a verb or preposi- 
tion maybe found by putting "whom" or "what" after the 
verb or preposition and asking the question. Examples : 
" William hurt his sister." Hurt whom? Ans. Sister. There- 
fore, "sister" is the object of the verb "hurt." "William went 
into the street." Into what? Ans. Street. Therefore, " street" 
is the object of the preposition "into." 

Exercise. — Find the object of each of the verbs and preposi- 
tions in the foregoing sentences. 

FORM OF THE CASES. 

124. The Nominative and Objective cases are 
alike iti form. 

3* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

125. The Possessive singular is formed from the 
nominative singular, by adding an apostrophe and s. 

126. When the nominative singular ends in s, or in the sound 
of s, and there is likewise the sound of s in the first part of the 
syllable, and the next word also begins with s, the possessive 
singular is formed by taking an apostrophe only, without an 
additional s. The object of this is to avoid too great a combi- 
nation of hissing sounds. Thus, " for Jesus' sake," " for con- 
science' sake." When the nominative singular ends in ss, and 
the next word begins with s, the s is sometimes omitted after 
the apostrophe, even though there is no additional 5 sound in 
the first part of the syllable ; as, " for goodness' sake." . 

Note. — The best writers at the present time very rarely omit 
the s after the apostrophe in the singular. 

127. The Possessive plural is formed from the 
nominative plural, by adding an apostrophe only 
when the plural ends in s, and by adding both the 
apostrophe and s when the plural does not end in s. 

Note.— For the origin of the Possessive case see Appen- 
dix 8. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

Singula r . P hi ra I. 

■ Norn. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. 

Friend friend's friend friends friends' friends 
Man man's man men men's men 

Church church's church churches churches' churches 
Lady lady's' lady ladies ladies' ladies 
Jones Jones's Jones Joneses Joneses' Joneses. 

128. When the nominative ends in a sound with which the 
apostrophic s cannot combine, the word is pronounced as if es 
were added. Thus, church's is pronounced exactly like churches. 
Care should be taken in writing these forms, not to be misled 
by the sound. 

129. In like manner care should be taken not to confound 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

the possessive singular and the nominative plural of nouns 
ending in y after a consonant, which are pronounced alike, 
though written differently ; as, lady, lady's, ladies. 

130. The import of the possessive may generally be expressed 
by the preposition of; thus, " man's wisdom" means " the wis- 
dom of man." These two forms of expression, however, do not 
always have the same meaning. Thus, "the king's picture" 
means a picture belonging to the king ; but " a picture of the 
king" means & portrait of him. 

131. The apostrophe and s do not always indicate the posses- 
sive case. They are sometimes employed to form the plural of 
mere letters or characters used as nouns ; as four 3's, ten 6's, 
&c. ; also to form the singular of verbs of a similar character ; 
as, " He pro's and con's, and weighs the matter over." (See 
Article 105, Exc. 4.) 

Exercises in Declension. — Decline fox, farmer, Benjamin, 
James, city, attorney, lass, miss. 

Form the possessive case singular of Agnes, Bohert Morris, 
Eoger Williams, Martin -Van Buren, John Quincy Adams. 

Form the possessive case singular and plural of baby, colony, 
landlady, dray, calf midatto, ox-cart, ox, maid-ofall-work. 

Correct the following expressions : Lazarus' son; The 9s were 
cast out ; There are two Jcs in Jack ; James' lesson is hard. 



PAKSING EXEECISES. 

Sentence. — " John went home." 

Model. — "John" (1.) is a noun, it is the name of a person; 
(2.) a proper noun, it is the name of an individual ; (3.) of the 
masculine gender, it denotes a male ; (4.) in the singular num- 
ber, it denotes but one; (5.) in the third person, it is spoken 
of; (6.) in the nominative case, it is the subject of the verb 
" went," 

Note. — The figures inserted in this model are not to be 
recited. They are put in to show the order in which the several 
properties of the word are to be given. These six items must 
be given, and given in this order, in parsing every noun. The 
scholar in learning, and the teacher in hearing the recitation, 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by following the order of the figures, may know that nothing is 
omitted. 

Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns and Articles in the following 
sentences: Grace Darling, the heroine, was a lighthouse keeper's 
daughter. In a great emergency, she helped her father to row 
a boat during a dreadful storm, and was the means, in the hands 
of Providence, of preventing sorrow in many mothers' hearts. 

ADJECTIVES. 

132. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a 
Noun; as, good man. (See Appendix 9.) 

133. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express 
some quality of another noun ; as, gold ring, sea water. 

134. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and admit of 
number and case; as, our superiors, his betters, by fifties, for 
twenty's sake, &c. 

135. Adjectives preceded by the definite article are often 
used as nouns; as, "The little that was known of him." When 
the expression refers to persons, the adjective is always con- 
sidered plural ; as, " the good/' meaning good men. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

136. Adjectives which express number are called Numerals. 

137. Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, the Cardinal, 
Ordinal, and Multiplicative. 

138. The Cardinal Adjectives are, one, two, three, four, &c. 

139. The Ordinal Adjectives are, first, second, third, fourth, &c. 

140. The Multiplicatives are, single, double, triple, quad- 
ruple, &c. 

141. There are also various compound adjectives into which 
the numerals enter ; as, one-leaved, two-leaved, three-leaved, 
&c, two-fold, three-fold, four-fold, &c. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

142. Adjectives are varied by Comparison. 

143. The Degrees of Comparison are three, the 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. (See 
Appendix 10.) 

144. The Comparative and Superlative are formed 
by adding er and est to the Positive ; as, great, greater, 
greatest. 

145. Adjectives are also compared by prefixing 
to the Positive the words more and most, less and least; 
as, numerous; more numerous, most numerous; less 
numerous, least numerous. 

Note 1. — More and most, less and least, in these cases, may 
be parsed separately as adverbs, or the two words may be 
taken together as the comparative or superlative form of the 
adjective. 

Note 2. — Some adjectives form the superlative by adding 
most to the end of the word ; as, upper, uppermost 

146. Adjectives of one syllable are generally com- 
pared by the first mode, namely, by er and est. 

147. Adjectives of more than one syllable are 
generally compared by the second mode, namely, by 
more and most, less and least, 

148. Dissyllables ending in y and e generally take 
er and est; as, happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, 
ablest 



ADJECTIVES 


COMPARED 


IRREGULARLY. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Little 


tess 


least 


Much 


more 


most 


Par 


j farther 

( further 
C 


j farthest 
1 furthest. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

149. Bad has also evil and ill in the positive ; and muck has 
also many. Elder' and eldest come regularly from eld (now 
obsolete). 

150. The following have two forms of the superlative with 
different meanings. 

Near nearer nearest [hi place) next^i 

Late later latest (in time) last > in order. 

Fore former foremost [in place) first J 

151. Prior, superior, ulterior, exterior, inferior, &c, involve 
the idea of comparison, as do also the words previous, preferable, 
and many others, but they are not considered as comparatives, 
and are not followed by than, as English comparatives usually 
are. 

152. The termination isli makes what is sometimes called a 
subpositive ; as, bluish, blackish, &c. 

153. Some of the ideas expressed by adjectives are fixed and 
absolute. That is, they refer to things not capable of increase 
or diminution. Among these may be reckoned those which 
denote some definite number, shape, or position ; as, two, three, 
second, third, circular, triangular, perpendicular, &c. ; also those 
which express the substance of which any thing is made, as, 
golden, flaxen, &c. ; also many such words as universal, perfect. t 
All such adjectives are incapable of being compared. 

Exercises in Comparison. — Compare unlucky, lucky, benevo- 
lent, shady, sad, active, abusive, noisy, lazy, gay, fine, irregular, 
harmonious. 

Give the superlative of hind, inner, outer, top. 



Parsing Exercises. — Parse "wise" in the sentence, " Solo- 
mon was a wise king." 

Model. — " Wise (1.) is an adjective, it is used to qualify the 
name 'king-/ (2.) it is in the positive degree, compared 'wise, 
wiser, wisest/ n * 

Parse all the Nouns and Adjectives in the following sen- 
tences : 

The exterior of the stone wall was made perpendicular. It 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

was two feet thick at the top, and of double thickness at the 
bottom. 

We should not consider our inferiors contemptible, for though 
they may be our inferiors in rank, perhaps they are our supe- 
riors in virtue. 

The wicked who put off repentance to the eleventh hour, are 
more foolish than the man who waited until it rained to mend 
a leaky roof. 

Rain water is less pleasant to the taste than river or spring 
water. Though the former may contain less foreign matter, 
the latter is preferable to the thirsty. 

PRONOUNS. 

154. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
as, " The man is happy, because he is benevolent." 

(See Appendix 11.) 

Division of the Pronouns. 

155. Pronouns are divided into three classes; 
Personal, Belative, and Adjective. 

156. Adjective Pronouns are again subdivided 
into three classes; Distributive, Demonstrative, 
and Indefinite. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

157. The Personal Pronouns are five; /, thou, he, 
she, it; with their plurals, zoe, you, they. 

158. They are called Personal Pronouns because 

they denote the person by themselves, and without 

reference to any other word. 

Note. — See Note under the Relative Pronouns, page 39, and 
also Appendix 12. 

159. Personal Pronouns have Gender, Number, 
Person, and Case. 



36 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 

First Person — Masc. or Fern. 

Singular. Plural. 



Norn. 




Nom. we 


Poss. 


my, or mine 


Poss. our, or ours 


Obj. 


me 


Obj. us. 




Second Person- 


—Masc. or Fern. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


thou 


Nom. you 


Poss. 


iky, or thine 


Poss. your, or yours 


Obj. 


thee 


Obj . you. 




Third Persoi 


i — Masculine. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


he 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


his 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


him 


Obj . them. 




Third Perso, 


M — Feminine. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


she 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


her, or hers 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


her 


Obj. them. 




Third Pers 


dn— Neuter. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


it 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


its 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


it 


Obj. them. 



160. The first and second persons being always present to 
the view, their sex is supposed to be known. A separate form, 
therefore, is not needed to distinguish the sex. It is otherwise 
in the third person. That which is spoken of is, or may be, 
absent. (See Appendix 13.) 

161. In the first person, the plural we is often used for the 
singular I, by Editors, Reviewers, Governors, &c. 

162. In the second person, the plural is generally used for 
the singular. Thus, you is used for thou, your or yours for thy 
or thine, and you for thee. In prayers to God, however, and on 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

other solemn occasions, we use the singular form, thou, thy or 
thine, and thee. 

Note. — Where a plural pronoun is thus used, while only one 
person is meant, the verb as well as the pronoun must be plural; 
thus, we are, not we is ; you were, not you was. 

163. The second person plural had formerly ye both in the 
nominative and the objective. This form is now obsolete in the 
objective, and nearly obsolete in the nominative. 

164. The Possessives should never be written with an apos- 
trophe, Iter's, it's, our y s, your y s, their 's, but always thus : hers, 
its, ours, yours, theirs. 

165. It is often used indefinitely, for either number, or any 
gender. Thus we say, " It is he," " It is she," " It is they," 
" It is I," &c. 

166. The adjective own is frequently found connected with 
the possessive case of the personal pronoun, in order to make 
the possessive emphatic ; thus, " It is your own fault." 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

167. Myself, thyself, herself and itself are called 
Compound Personal Pronouns. 

168. In the Compound Personal Pronouns, the nominative 
and objective cases are alike, and the possessive is wanting. 



Declei 


ision of the 


Compo 


and Personal Pronouns. 




First Person — Masc. or Fem. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


myself 




Nom. ourselves 


Poss. 


(wanting) 




Poss. (wanting) 


Obj. 


myself 




Obj. ourselves. 




Second 


Person — Masc. or Fem. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


thyself 


Nom. yourselves 


Poss. 


(-wanting) 


Poss. (wanting) 


Obj. 
4 


thyself 




Obj. yourselves. 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





Third Person— 


-Masculine. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


Norn. 


himself 






Nom. themselves 


Poss. 


(wanting) 






Poss. (wanting) 


Obj. 


himself 






Obj. themselves. 




Third Person- 


-Feminine. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


herself 






Nom. themselves 


Poss. 


(wanting) 






Poss. (wanting) 


Obj. 


herself 






Obj. themselves. 




Third Person 


— Neuter. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


itself 






Nom. themselves 


Poss. 


(wanting) 






Poss. (wanting) 


Obj. 


itself 






Obj. themselves. 


Note.— 


-Analogy would 


require himself to be hisself and 


themselves to be theirselves 


but custom has determined other- 


wise. 









Parsing Exercises. — Parse " he," in the sentence, " When 
John was at school, he wrote a letter to his father." 

Model. — " He" is (1.) a personal pronoun, (2.) third person, 
(3.) masculine gender, (4.) singular number, (5.) nominative 
case. 

Parse all the Personal Pronouns in the following examples : 

The wind, when it blows upon my body, making it shiver, 
tells me that I am mortal, though some persons would only 
complain that they were obliged to bear its bufferings. 

The Queen of Sheba retired from Solomon's presence, con- 
vinced that his wisdom was greater than any account of it that 
had been given to her of it, would have led her to infer. 

We, the people, watch those who are our rulers with jealousy, 
that they may not infringe upon our rights, and that the liber- 
ties which we possess, may be secured to our children when 
they succeed us. 

Parse all the Articles, Nouns, and Adjectives in the foregoing 
sentences. 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

RELATIVE PROXOUXS. 

169. The Relative Pronouns are, who, which, and 

that. 

170. These are called Relative Pronouns because 
they relate to some word going before, called the 
antecedent; as, " The boy who wishes to be learned, 
must be studious.' 7 

Note. — Every pronoun, indeed, necessarily relates to the 
word which it represents. But this relation is not the leading 
and prominent idea in any except the Relative pronouns. In 
each of the three classes of pronouns, it is the leading and 
prominent idea which gives name to the class. Thus, the lead- 
ing idea in the Personal pronouns is the distinction of Person ; 
in the Relative pronouns, it is the relation to the antecedent ; 
in the Adjective pronouns, it is the dependence of the word 
upon some noun in the manner of an adjective. (See Appen- 
dix 14.) 

171. In speaking of persons,, we use the Relative who; as, 
" The lady toko called at the house." In speaking of inferior 
animals, or things without life, we use which; as, "The horse 
which my father bought," " The pencil which the teacher gave 
me." 

172. That is often used in speaking either of persons or 
things ; as, " The best boy that lives," " The same book that 
was lost." 

173. Who and which are alike in both numbers. 

Declension of Who. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom 



Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Declension of Which. 

Singular. PluraL 

Nom. which i Nom. which 

Poss. whose Poss. whose 

Obj. which Obj. which. 

174. That is indeclinable. 

Compound Relatives. 

175. TT/za^ is a Compound Relative, including 
both the relative and the antecedent. 

176. What is equivalent in the singular to that which} and in 
the plural to those which. 

Examples. — In the singular, " Give me what I want/' means 
" That (thing) which I want;" in the plural, "What appear to 
be faults," means " Those (things) which appear to be faults." 

177. Who, which, and ufhai, when joined with ever 
or soever, are also Compound Relatives: thus, who- 
ever means any one who; as, " Whoever hopes to win 
the prize, must labor hard ;" whatsoever means any- 
thing which; as, "Whatsoever is more than these, 
cometh of evil/* 

178. The Compound Relatives thus formed are 
six, namely, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichso- 
ever, whatever y and whatsoever. 

179. Whosoever is regularly declined like who; 
thus, 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. whosoever 

Poss. whosesoever 
Obj. whomsoever 



Nom. whosoever 
Poss. whosesoever 
Obj. whomsoever. 

180. All the other Compound Relatives are inde- 
clinable. 

181. The word thai is used in three senses. 1. Sometimes it 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

has the meaning of who or which; as, "The best boy that lives ;" 
and then it is a Relative Pronoun. 2. Sometimes it points out 
a noun ; as, that boy ; and then it is an Adjective Pronoun. 
3. Sometimes it shows ttie dependence of one verb upon 
another ; as, He wished that he had done it ; and then it is a 
Conjunction. 

182. Which and what, are often used as Adjective Pronouns ; 
as, " Which things are an allegory." " By what means shall a 
young man learn ?" 

183. What, whatever, and whatsoever, are also used both as 
Relative and Adjective Pronouns at the same time; as, "We lost 
what books we had," that is, those books which we had. 

184. Whether (meaning which one of the two) is now obso- 
lete, which being used in its place. Whether (a Conjunction) is 
still in use. 

Interrogatives and Responsives. 

185. In asking questions, who, which, and what are called 
Interrogatives. As Interrogatives, they have no antecedent, but 
relate to a word subsequent, contained in the answer. Thus, 
"JFAodidit? John." 

186. In answering questions, who, which, and what are called 
Responsives. As responsives, they seem to relate to no word, 
either antecedent or subsequent. Thus, in the response, " I do 
not know who wrote it," supplying an antecedent, changes the 
meaning. " I do not know the person who wrote it," means, I 
am not acquainted with him, which is quite a different idea. 

187. Which and what, when used as Interrogatives* or Re- 
sponsives, Or when joined with ever and soever, apply to persons 
as well as things ; as, Which of them did it? John. What is 
he ? A lawyer. 

188. The word used to answer the question must be the same 
as the one used to ask it ; thus, Who wrote the book ? I do not 
know who wrote it. Which of the gentlemen was it? I do not 
know which of them it was. What is he ? I do not know what 
he is. 

189. In asking about persons, who inquires for the name; as, 
" Who wrote the book ? Mr. Webster ;" which asks for the par- 

4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ticular individual, where there are several persons of the same 
name ; as, " Which of the Websters wrote it ? Noah Webster ;" 
what asks for the person's character or occupation; as, "What 
was Mr. Webster ? A lexicographer*." 

Note. — Relative Pronouns are of the same gender, number, 
and person as their antecedent. 



Parsing Exercises. — Parse "who," in the sentence, "John, 
who was at school, wrote a letter to his father." 

Model. — " Who" is (1.) a relative pronoun, relating to 
"John" for its antecedent; (2.) it is third person, (3.) singular 
number, (4.) and masculine gender, to agree with " John ;" and 
(5.) is in the nominative case. 

Model for Compound Relatives. — "Give me what I want." 
" What" is a compound relative, including both antecedent and 
relative (that — which), in the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender. As antecedent, it is in the objective case, object 
of the verb "give." As relative, it is in the objective case, 
object of the verb "want." 

" Whoever hopes to win the prize, must labor hard." " Who- 
ever" is a compound relative, including both antecedent and 
relative [any one — who), in the third person, singular number ; 
common gender. As antecedent, it is in the nominative case, 
subject of the verb " must labor." As relative, it is in the 
nominative case, subject of the verb " hopes." 

Model for words used both as Relative and Adjective 
Pronouns. — "We lost what books we had." "What" is a 
compound relative, equivalent to an adjective pronoun and a 
relative [those — which). As an adjective pronoun, it qualifies 
" books." As a relative, it is in the third person, plural number, 
neuter gender, agreeing with "books," and in the objective case, 
object of the verb " had." 

Model for Interrogatives and Responsives. — "Who did 
it ? John." " Who" is an interrogative pronoun, relating to 
the subsequent word "John ;" it is in *the third person, singular 
number, and masculine gender, to agree with "John ;" and is 
in the nominative case, subject of the verb "did." 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

"Who wrote the letter?" "Who# is an interrogative pro- 
noun, relating to some noun contained in the answer, and not 
yet given ; its person, number, and gender, therefore, cannot be 
determined ; it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb 
" wrote." 

" I do not know who wrote it." " Who" is a responsive pro- 
noun, not relating to any word, either antecedent or subsequent; 
its person, number, and gender cannot be determined ; it is in 
the nominative case, subject of the verb " wrote." 

Parse the Relative Pronouns, Compound Relatives, Interro- 
gatives, and Responsives in the following sentences : 

In this country in which we live, every one that is a citizen 
can enjoy what in other countries is enjoyed by only a favored 
few. The President whom we have just chosen to rule over us 
is a living example of what the poorest man may achieve. 
Whoever has the ability to rise, is in no way checked by a- 
government which affords equal protection to all. 

By what slow degrees the little acorn becomes the mighty 
oak! 

Whatever skill I have in composition, is due to the manner 
in which I was trained. 

In the haste and confusion, I could not see by whom it was 
that he was struck. 

What happened to you and your sister on your way to school? 

Parse each of the Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, and Personal 
Pronouns in the foregoing sentences. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUN'S. 

190. The Adjective Pronouns are so called be- 
cause they depend upon a noun, as an adjective does. 

191. The Adjective Pronouns are subdivided into 
three kinds or classes; viz. Distributive; Demon- 
strative, and Indefinite. (See Appendix 14.) 

Note 1. — My, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their (which have 
been given as personal pronouns in the possessive case) are 
sometimes called Possessive Adjective Pronouns. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Distributives. 

192. The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are, 
each, every, either, neither. 

193. These are called Distributives, because they 
refer separately and singly to each person or thing 
of a' number of persons or things. The Distributive 
Adjective Pronouns, therefore, are all in the singular 
number. 

194. Each is used when speaking of two or more. Example: 
"Each of you will go directly home." This will be correct 
whether it is addressed to two persons, or to more than two. 

195. Every is never used except when speaking of more 
than two. Example : " Every one of you will go directly 
home." This would not be correct if addressed to only two 
persons. 

196. Each and every mean all that make up the number, 
although taken separately. 

197. Either means one or the other, but not both. It is used, 
therefore, when speaking of but two persons or things. 

198. Neither means not either. 

Demonstratives. 

199. The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns 
are this and that, with their plurals, these and those. 

200. These are called Demonstratives, because 
they point out the objects to which they relate in a 
definite manner; thus, This boy recited well, but 
that boy did not; These men are officers, but those 
men are privates. 

201. The Demonstratives this and these, are applied to near 
objects ; that and those to objects that are distant. 

202. In contrast, that refers to the first mentioned, this to 
the last; as, " Wealth and poverty are both temptations; that 
[wealth] tends to excite pride, this [poverty] discontent." 





(Nom. 


One 


Sing. 


< Poss. 


One's 




lobj. 


One 




rNom. 


Ones 


Plur. 


< Poss. 


Ones' 




(Obj. 


Ones. 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

Indefinites. 

203. The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are, 
any, all, such, some, both, one, none, other another. 

204. These are called Indefinites, because they 
point out the objects to which they relate in an inde- 
finite manner. 

205. One, other, another, are sometimes used as nouns. 
When thus used, they are declined. Thus: 

c Norn. Other 

Sing, i Poss. Other's 

I Obj. Other 

c Nom. Others 

Plur. \ Poss. Others' 

(obj. Others. 

206. Another is merely the article an and other, and is used 
only in the singular number. 

r Nom. Another 
Singular. < Poss. Another's 
(Obj. Another. 

Parsing Exercises.— Parse " this," in the sentence, " John 
wrote this letter." 

Model. — " This" (1.) is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, 
(2.) singular number, (3.) and belongs to "letter." 

Parse the Adjective Pronouns in the following sentences: 

That class of society in which only those who are wealthy 
are members, and in which each individual possesses no other 
merit, may be respected, but it has not the highest claims to 
respectability. All wise and good men, of any class, or of 
whatever rank, or of either of the two grades which the world 
has made, — the rich and the poor, — are worthy of respect. 
Such men receive the respect of all. 

YEEBS. 

207. A Yeeb is a word used to assert or affirm ; 
as. " John strikes the table." 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Explanation. — No assertion can be complete in sense unless 
a verb is used. As this part of speech is the vital, essential 
portion of an assertion or affirmation, it is therefore defined as 
a word used to assert or affirm. (See Appendix 15.) 

Attributes of Verbs. 

208. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number,. 
and Person. 

Certain parts of the verb also are called Parti- 
ciples, 

voice. 

209. Voice is that attribute of the verb which 
denotes whether the subject or nominative of the 
verb acts, or is acted upon. 

210. Verbs have two voices, the Active, and the 
Passive. 

211. The Active Voice is that form of the verb 
which denotes that the subject or nominative acts, 
or does the thing mentioned; as ; "John strikes the 
table." 

212. The Passive Voice is that form of the verb 
which denotes that the subject or nominative is acted 
upon ; as, u The table is struck by John." 

Note. — The action is the same in both examples, only the 
agent and the object have changed places. 

MOOD. 

213. Mood is that attribute of a verb by which it 

denotes the manner or way in which the assertion is 

expressed. 

Note. — Mood is only another form of the word "mode," and 
signifies manner, or way. 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

Division of the Moods. 

It is the office of the verb to assert or affirm something.^ If 
this assertion or affirmation is limited to some subject or nomi- 
native, the verb is said to *be finite. The assertion may be 
connected with the subject in four different ways, giving rise 
to the four finite modes or moods. 1. The assertion may be 
expressed directly and without limitation, and then it is in the 
Indicative mood ; as, " The boy sleeps." 2. It. may be expressed 
as an uncertainty, and then it is in the Subjunctive mood; as, 
"If the boy sleeps." 3. It may be expressed as a possibi- 
lity, &c, and then it is in the Potential mood ; as, " The boy 
may sleep." 4. It may be expressed as a command, &c, and 
then it is in the Imperative mood ; as, " Sleep, boy." Some 
times the assertion is not limited to any particular subject, and 
then it is said to be in the Infinitive, that is, the unlimited mood ; 
as, " To sleep." 

214. Yerbs have five Moods; the Indicative, the 
Subjunctive, the Potential, the Imperative, and 
the Infinitive. 

215. The Indicative Mood is that form of the 
verb in which the assertion is expressed directly and 
without limitation. 

Note. — The Indicative mood is also used in asking direct 
questions ; as, Does the sun shine? Does my mother love me? 
This is sometimes called the Interrogative form. 

216. The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the 
verb in which the assertion is expressed as an uncer- 
tainty. 

217. The Subjunctive mood is generally preceded by a con- 
junction, such as if, though; although, unless, except, whether, or 
lest. 

218. The Subjunctive mood is always accompanied with 
another verb in some other mood. Without this it cannot make 
complete sense. Thus, " Though he studies diligently, he does 
not succeed." 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

219. The Potential Mood is that form of the 
verb which expresses possibility, liberty, power, 
willingness, or obligation. 

Note. — The Potential mood is also used in asking questions; 
as, May I write? Must I write? &c. 

220. The Imperative Mood is that form of the 
verb which is used to command, exhort, entreat, or 
permit. 

221. The Infinitive Mood is that form of the 
verb which is not limited to a subject,, or which has 
no subject, 

tense. 

222. Tense is that attribute of a verb by which 
it expresses distinctions of Time. 

223. There are six tenses, the Present, the Past, 
the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, 
and the Second Future. (See Appendix 16.) 

224. The Present Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes present time ; as ; I write. 

Note 1. — The Present Tense often expresses what is habitual, 
universal, or permanent, as, " The sun gives light by day, the 
moon by night ;" " Charity thinketh no evil." 

Note 2. — When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as 
ivlien, after, as soon as, &c, the Present Tense sometimes con- 
veys the idea of that which is yet future; as, "When the mail 
arrives, I shall have a letter." 

225. The Past Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes simply past time ; as, I wrote. 

Note. — This is sometimes called the Imperfect Tense. 

226. The Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what is past and finished, but con- 
nected also with the present time ; as, I have written. 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

Note. — When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as 
when, after, as soon as, &c, the Perfect Tense, like the present, 
often denotes something yet to come; as, " When I have finished 
my letter, I will attend to your request." 

227. The Pluperfect Tense is that form of the 
verb which denotes what is past and finished, before 
some other event which is also past ; as, I liad writ- 
ten the letter, before it was called for.- 

228. The First Future Tense is that form of 
the verb which denotes simply future time; as, I 
shall write. 

229. The Second Future Tense is that form of 
the verb which denotes a future time, prior to some 
other time which is itself future; as, I shall have 
written the letter before it will be called for. 

In regard to the tenses of the Subjunctive and Potential 
moods, see Appendix 17, 

REMARKS ON THE MOODS AND TENSES. 

1. The Number of the Tenses in the Different Moods. — -The 
Indicative and Subjunctive Moods have all six of the tenses; 
the Potential has four, the Present, Past, Perfect, and Pluper- 
fect; the Imperative has only the Present; and the Infinitive 
has the Present and the Perfect. 

2. The Nature of the Perfect Tense, and the Distinction be- 
tween it and the Past Tense.- — The Perfect Tense includes three 
distinct ideas. 1. The action is finished, hence the name, Per- 
fect. 2. It was commenced in past time. 3. It is connected 
in some way with the present. Thus, in the phrase, " I have 
written a letter this week," the letter is finished ; it was com- 
menced at some time previous to the present moment, and 
consequently in past time ; and the act was done during a 
period of which the present moment is a part. 

The Perfect and the Past (at least the ordinary form of it) 
5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

.agree in two things. They both express what is past; they, 
both express what is finished. But they differ in this. The 
period of time in which the act is done, extends in the Perfect 
tense to the present moment ; in the Imperfect it does not. It 
excludes all ideas of the present instant. The phrases, " I wrote 
a letter yesterday ," " I have written a letter this week," may 
both refer to the same transaction. But the mode of expression 
in the former case describes the action as occurring in a period 
of time which was complete before the present time ; while in 
the latter, some portion of the period assigned still remains. 

Hence the Perfect is often used to express what continues to 
the present time in its consequences, although we know that 
the period of the action was complete long ago; as, "Cicero 
has written orations." We cannot in like manner say, " Cicero 
has written poems." His poems are lost, his orations still exist. 
Cicero, the poet, perished long since, but Cicero, the orator, is 
still extant, and may be conceived as existing and acting in a 
period extending down to the present moment. For the same 
reason, we cannot say, " The Druids have claimed great powers," 
for they were long since extinct, and they have left no writing 
or other instrument in which such claim can be conceived a9 
now set forth. We may, however, say, "Mahomet has claimed 
great powers," for the claim still exists in the Koran. An 
author is universally considered as living while his writings 
live. Hence he may be considered as having done a thing in a 
period of time not yet expired. 

3. The Tense ; Person, and Number of the Imperative Mood. — 
A command, an exhortation, or an entreaty, is necessarily a 
present act. The Imperative Mood, therefore, is always in the 
present tense. The command, exhortation, or entreaty, being 
spoken to some party, is necessarily in the second person. It 
will be singular or plural according to circumstances. Its 
nominative will always be either thou, or you, understood. 
Thus, " Sit still," if addressed to one person, is singular, and 
means, " Sit thou still ;" if addressed to more than one, it is 
plural, and means, " Sit you still." Whether the nominative to 
the Imperative mood is thou understood, or you, must be learned, 
in each particular case, from other words in the sentence. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

11 Brethren, pray for us." Here, the word " brethren" shows 
that more than one are addressed. Therefore, the verb is 
plural, and its nominative is "you" understood. "Father, for- 
give them." Here, the word "Father" shows that only one is 
addressed. The verb, therefore, is singular, and its nominative 
is " thou" understood. 

4. The Tenses of the Potential and Subjunctive Moods. — The 
auxiliaries might, could, would, and should, are often used as 
expressing the primary meaning of these words, that is, simply 
possibility, liberty, willingness, and obligation, without distin- 
guishing the time, or, rather, leaving the time to be determined 
by the other words in the sentence. They may therefore be 
used equally, where the meaning is present, past, or future. 
Thus, "He could do it now, if he would" (Present) ; "He could 
not do it yesterday, because his father would not let him" 
(Past) ; "He could do it to-morrow, if his father would let him" 
(Future). (See also Appendix 17.) 

5. Formation of the Subjunctive Mood by transposing the 
Nominative and the Verb. — Any verb in the past tense may be 
rendered subjunctive in meaning by putting the nominative 
after the verb, or between the verb and the auxiliary. This is 
very common with the verbs to have, to be, and to do. Thus, 
" Had I a book, I would study the lesson," means, " If I had a 
book," &c. When this construction occurs with the verb to be, 
the verb assumes the subjunctive form as well as meaning ; thus, 
were I, wert thou, were he, &c, and not, was I, wast thou, &c. 

6. Peculiar usage of the Verbs To Have and To Be. — There 
is a peculiar usage of to have and to be that needs to be noted. 
Were is often used in the subjunctive form without a conjunc- 
tion, and with a potential meaning, or in the sense of icould 
be; thus, "I were an idiot, thus to speak," that is, "I icould be 
an idiot, &c." In like manner, had is used in the sense of 
would, have; thus, "It had been good for that man if he had 
never been born," that is, "It would have been good," &c. 

There is another usage of had still more remarkable, and so 
far as I know, incapable of explanation by anything analogous 
in the language. It is where had bears the meaning simply 
of would; thus, "I had rather not do it," "I had as lief not be, 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as live to be," &c. The peculiarity in the previous paragrapns 
has reference to the meaning. Here it is a peculiarity of form 
as well as meaning, analogy requiring had been, had done, &c, 
not had be, had do. 

PARTICIPLES. 

230. A Participle is that form of the verb which 
partakes of the nature both of a verb and of an 
adjective. 

Nature of the Participles. — The Participles contain an affir- 
mation in the form of a supposition, or in a kind of incom- 
plete or suspended state. Thus, " The man having finished his 
letter, will carry it to the post-office." Here, the participle 
"having finished" contains precisely the same meaning that 
would have been conveyed by the expression, "when he has 
finished." It is the affirmation of the verb subject to some 
limitation, or in a state of suspense. The participles also 
express distinctions of time, which is another of the peculiar 
properties of the verb. Hence, they are, by almost common 
consent, considered parts of the verb. They partake also of 
the nature of the adjective, inasmuch as they are joined to a . 
noun in construction, in the same manner as an adjective is. 
(See Appendix 18.) 

231. The Participles are three, the Present, the 
Perfect, and the Compound Perfect. 

232. The Present Participle denotes that which 
is now in progress ; as, going, being, living, ivorking, 
&c The Present participles all end in ing. 

233. The Perfect Participle denotes that which 
is complete or finished ; as, written, stolen, learned. 

234. The Compound Perfect Participle denotes 
that which is finished before something else men- 
tioned; as, having written, having stolen, having 
learned. 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

NUMBER AND PERSON. 

235. Verbs have variations of form, to correspond with the 
number and person of their subject. These variations are 
called the numbers and persons of the verb. Thus : 

Singular. Plural, 



First Person. I am. 
Second Person. Thou art. 
Third Person. He is. 



First Person. We are. 
Second Person. You are. 
Third Person. They are. 

236. Verbs have two numbers, Singular and 
Plural; and three persons, First, Second, and 
Third. 

Classes of Verbs. 

237. Verbs are divided into the following classes: 
Transitive and Intransitive ; Kegular and 
Irregular ; Impersonal, Defective, and Auxil- 
iary. 

transitive and intransitive verbs. 

238. A Transitive Verb is one which requires 
an objective case after it ; as, James writes a letter. 

239. An Intransitive Verb is one which does 
not require an objective case after it ; as, John sleeps. 

Note. — A verb is to be parsed as transitive, whenever it is 
correctly used with an objective case after it ; and intransitive, 
whenever it is correctly used without an objective case. (See 
Appendix 19.) 

240. Many verbs are used both transitively and intransi- 
tively ; as, " He reads well/' " He reads a book." 

241. Intransitive verbs are not used in the Passive Voice : 
thus, we may say to laugh, but not to be laughed.. 

242. When intransitive verbs are followed by certain pre- 
positions, the verb and preposition sometimes form a kind of 

5* 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



compound verb, which is transitive, and admits of a passive 
voice : thus, we say to laugh at a person, and to be laughed at 
by him. 

243. Verbs usually intransitive sometimes take after them 
an objective of kindred signification. In that case they are 
transitive, and admit of a passive voice; as, ih I run a race/' 
"A race is run." 

244. Transitive verbs in English, are sometimes used without 
an objective case, in a sense between the active and passive 
voices ; as, I taste the apple ; the apple is tasted by me; the 
apple tastes sweet 

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

245. A Eegular Yerb is one that forms its Past 
Tense and Perfect Participle by the addition of d or 
ed to its present tense ; as, Present, love ; Past, loved; 
Perfect Participle, loved. 

246. An Irregular Yerb is one that does not 
form its Past Tense and Perfect Participle by the 
addition of d or ed to its present tense ; as, Present, 
teach; Past, taught; Perfect Participle, taught. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



1. Verbs I 


xaving both a regular and 


an irregular form. 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Awake 


awaked or awoke 


awaked 


Bereave 


bereaved or bereft 


bereaved or bereft 


Build, Re- 


builded or built 


builded or built 


Catch 


catched or caught 


catched or caught 


Clothe 


clothed 


clothed or clad 


Crow 


crowed or crew 


crowed 


Deal 


dealed or dealt 


dealed or dealt 


Dig 


digged or dug 


digged or dug 


Dwell 


dwelled or dwelt 


dwelled or dwelt 


Gild, Re- 


gilded or gilt 


gilded or gilt 



- 


ETYMOLOGY. 


i 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Gird, Un- 


girded or 


girt 


girded or girt 


Grave 


graved 




graved or graven 


Hang 


hanged or hung 


hanged or hung 


Hew 


hewed 




hewed or hewn 


Knit - 


knitted or knit 


knitted or knit 


Load, Re- Un- 


loaded 




loaded or laden 


Mow 


mowed 




mowed or mown 


Saw 


sawed 




sawed or sawn 


Shape, Mis- 


shaped 




shaped or shapen 


Shave 


shaved 




shaved or shaven 


Shine 


shined or 


shone 


shined or shone 


Slit 


slitted or 


slit 


slitted or slit 


Sow 


sowed 




sowed or sown 


Spill 


spilled or 


spilt 


spilled or spilt 


j Strew, Be- 
l Strow, Be- 


strewed 




strewed 


strowed 




strowed or strown 


Sweat 


sweated or sweat 


sweated or sweat 


Swell 


swelled 




swelled or swollen 


Wax 


waxed 




waxed or waxen 


Work 


worked or wrought 


worked or wrought. 


2. Verbs having all three parts alike. 


Burst 


burst 




burst 


Cast 


cast 




cast 


Cost 


cost 




cost 


Cut 


cut 




cut 


Hit 


hit 




hit 


Hurt 


hurt 




hurt 


Let 


let 




let 


Put 


put 




put 


Read 


read 




read 


Rid 


rid 




rid 


Shed 


shed 




shed 


Shred 


shred 




shred 


Shut 


shut 




shut 


Split 


• split 




split 


Spread, Be- 


spread 




spread 


Thrust 


thrust 




thrust. 



55 



56 



ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



3. Verbs having the Past tense and the Perfect Participle alike. 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Bend, Un- 


bent 


bent 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bind, Un- 


bound 


bound 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


hear 


Hold, Be- With- 


held 


held 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Lead, Mis- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make, Un- 


made 


made 


Meet 


met 


met 


Pay, Pre- He- 


paid 


paid 


Kend 


rent 


rent 


Say, Un- 


said 


said 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell, Under- 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Sling 


slung 


slung 







ETYMOLOGY. 




Present Tense, 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Slink 




slunk 


slunk 


Speed 




sped 


sped 


Spend, 


Mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spin 




spun 


spun 


Stand, 


With- 


stood 


stood 


Stick 




stuck 


stuck 


Sting 




stung 


stung 


String 




strung 


strung 


Swing 




swung 


swung 


Teach, 


Mis- Un- 


taught 


taught 


Tell 




told 


told 


Think 




thought 


thought 


Weep 




wept 


wept 


Win 




won 


won 


Wind, 


Un- 


wound 


wound 


Wring 




wrung 


wrung. 



57 



4. Verbs having the Present tense and the Perfect Participle alike. 

Come, Be- came come 

Run, Out- ran run. 



5. 


Verbs having 


all three parts unlike. 


Am 


was 


been 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Do, Mis- Over- Out- y ,. , 
Un- } dld 


done 


Draw, With- 


drew 


drawn 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Fall, Be- 


fell 


fallen 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Give, For Mis- 


gave 


given 


Go, Under- Fore- 


went 


gone 



58 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense, 
Grow, Out- 
Know 


Past Tense. 
grew 
knew 


Perfect Participle. 
grown 
known 


Lade, Un- 


laded 


laden 


Rise, A- 


rose 


risen 


Eive 


rived 


riven 


See, Fore- Over- 


saw 


seen 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn 


Show, Fore- 


showed 


shown 


Slay 
Slide 


slew 
slid 


slain 
slidden 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Speak, Be- 
Steal 


spoke 
stole 


spoken 
stolen 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Swear, For- 
Take, Be- Mis- Re- 
Over- Under- 


swore 
I took 


sworn 
taken 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Throw, Over- 


threw 


thrown 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wear, Out- 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Write, Re- 


wrote 


written. 



6. Verbs having two forms of the Past tense. 



Eat 


eat or ate 


eaten 


Ring 


rung or rang 


rung 


Sing 


sung or sang 


sung 


Sink 


sunk or sank 


sunk 


Spit 


spit or spat 


spit 


Spring 


sprung or sprang 


sprung 


Stink 


stunk or stank 


stunk 


Swim, Out 


swum or swam 


swum 


Thrive 


thrived or throve 


• thriven, 



ETYMOLOGY. 




7. Verbs having two forms 


of the Perfect Participle. 


Present Tense. Past Tense. 
Beat beat 


■ 


Perfect Participle. 
beat or beaten 


Bite bit 




bit or bitten 


Chide chid 




chid or chidden 


Get, Be- For- got 
Hide hid 




got or gotten 
hid or hidden 


Ride, Out- rode 




rode or ridden 


Strike struck 




struck or stricken, 



59 



8. Verbs having two forms both of the Past tense and Perfect Participle. 
Bid, For- Out- Under- bid or bade bid or bidden 



Stride, Be- 



strode or strid 



stridden or strid. 



9. Verbs having different meanings. 



j Bear (to bring forth) 
( Bear (to carry), For- 
j Cleave (to split) 
\ Cleave (to stick to) 

{Dare (to venture) 
Dare (to challenge) 
( Flee (to hasten away) 
\ Fly (to move as a bird) 

{Lay (to place), Mis- Re- 
Lie (to lie down), Over- Under- 
{Set (to place), Be- Re- 
Sit (to occupy a seat) 



bare 


born 


bore 


borne 


cleft or clove 


cleft or cloven 


cleaved 


cleaved 


durst 


dared 


dared 


dared 


fled 


fled 


flew 


flown 


laid 


laid 


lay 


lain 


set 


set 


sat 


sat. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

247. An Impersonal Verb is one which is never 
used except with the pronoun it for its subject ; as, 
"It snows." 



Note. — We never say, " I snow," " Thou snowest," 
snows," &c. 



'He 



60 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

248. A Defective Verb is one that is not used 
in all the Moods and Tenses ; as, must, ought, &c. 

AUXILIARY VERBS 

249. An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to 
form the Moods and Tenses of other verbs. 

250. The auxiliary verbs are, Shall, May, Can, 
and Must, and sometimes Be, Do, Have, and Will. 

Note. — These are called Auxiliary, or helping verbs, because 
by their help the other verbs form most of their moods and 
tenses. (See Appendix 20.) 

251. Be, do, have, and sometimes will, are also used as prin- 
cipal verbs ; as, they may be here ; they do nothing ; they have 
nothing ; they will it to be so. As principal verbs, they have 
all the moods and tenses which other verbs have. 

252. Be, as an Auxiliary, is used in all its moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons, in forming the passive voice of other 
verbs ; as, I am loved, I was loved, I have been loved. &c. 

253. Have, do, will, shall, may, can, as Auxiliaries, are used 
in only two forms, and must in only one form, viz. : 

Present Have, do, will, shall, can, may, must. 
Past. Had, did, would, should, could, might. 

254. These forms taken by themselves may be considered as 
the Present and Past, but they do not always form the present 
and past when in combination with the other Auxiliaries or 
with the principal verb. 

255. Shall, may, can, and must are defective, having only the 
tenses given above, and are never used except as Auxiliaries. 

CONJUGATION. 

256. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
arrangement of its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, 
and persons. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



61 



Conjugation of the verb To Be. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 







Present Tense, 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I am. 




1. We are. 


2. 


Thou art. 




2. You are. 


3. 


He is. 




3. They are 






Past Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I was. 




1. We were. 


2. 


Thou wast. 




2. You were. 


3. 


He was. 




3. They were. 






Perfect Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I have been. 




1. We have been. 


2. 


Thou hast been. 


2. You have been. 


3. 


He has been. 




3. They have been. 






Pluperfect 


Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I had been. 




1. We had been. 


2. 


Thou hadst been. 


2. You had been. 


3. 


He had been. 




3. They had been. 






First Future Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


. 


I will be. 




1. We will be. 


2. 


Thou wilt be. 




2. You will be. 


3. 


He will be. 




3. They will be. 



Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 I will have been. 1. We will have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Note 1. — In the Future tenses, the verb has two forms, shall 

and will. Shall has shalt in the second person singulai% but 

is elsewhere unchanged. In the first person, shall expresses 

simple futurity ; will expresses a promise, or a determination. 

6 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the second and third persons, ordinarily, wilt and will express 
simple futurity ; shall and shall express an obligation, a com- 
mand, or a promise. 

Note 2. — In the third person, the nominative of the verb may 
be any of the personal pronouns, he, she, or it, any of the rela- 
tive pronouns, who, which, what, that, &c, or any noun. For 
convenience of learning, only one nominative is inserted 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb " to be" through the Indica- 
tive mood, using " she" instead of " he." 

Conjugate it, using "it." 

Conjugate it, using " the man" for " he," and " the men" for 
" they." 

Conjugate it in the First and Second Future tenses, using 
" shall" instead of " will." 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Note. — The Subjunctive Mood of the verb To he has two 
forms. The first is called the Regular form, and is continued 
through all the six tenses. The other is called the Subjunctive 
form, and is found only in the Present and Past tenses. (See 
Appendix 21.) 

Present Tense — Regular form. 

Singular. Plural, 



1. 


If I am. 


1. If we are. 


2. 


If thou art. 


2. If you are. 


3. 


If he is. 


3. If they are. 




Present Tense- 


-Subjunctive form. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


If I be. 


1. If we be. 


2. 


If thou be. 


2. If you be. 


3. 


If he be. 


3. If they be. 




Past Tenoe- 


—Regular form. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


If I was. 


1. If we were. 


2. 


If thou wast. 


2. If you were. 


3. 


If he was. 


3. If they were. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


1. 


Past Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 
If I were. 1. If we were. 


2. 


If thou wert. 


2. If you were. 


3. 


If he were. 


3. If they were. 


1. 


Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 
If I have been. 1. If we have been. 


2. 


If thou hast been. 


2. If you have been. 


3. 


If he has been. 


3. If they have been, 




Pluperfect 

Singular. 


Tense. 

Plural. 



63 



1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will be. 1. If we will be. 

2. If thou wilt be. 2. If you will be. 

3. If he will be. 3. If they will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will have been. 1. If we will have been. 

2. If thou wilt have been. 2. If you will have been. 

3. If he will have been. 3. If they will have been. 
Note. — In conjugating the Subjunctive mood, the conjunc- 
tion before the verb may be if, though, although, unless, except, 
whether, or lest. (See Art. 217.) For convenience in learning, 
only one conjunction is used. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb "to be" through the Sub- 
junctive mood, using "though" instead of "if." 

Conjugate it in like manner, using each of the other conjunc- 
tions named. 





POTENTIAL 


MOOD. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular. 
I may be. 
Thou mayst be. 
He may be. 


Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. They may be. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be 3. They might be. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2, You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

Note. — In the Potential mood the auxiliary may be, 
In the Present tense, may, can, or must. 
In the Past tense, might, could, would, or should. 
In the Perfect tense, may have, can have, or must have. 
In the Pluperfect tense, might have, could have, would have., 
or should have. 

Exercise.— Conjugate the verb in the Present tense, using 
" can" instead of " may/' 
Conjugate it, using " must." 

Conjugate it in the Past tense, using "could;" using "would;" 
using " should." 

Conjugate it in the Perfect tense, using "can have;" using 
" must have." 

Conjugate it in the Pluperfect tense, using " could have ;" 
using "would have;" using "should have." 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Be, or be thou. 1. Be, or be you. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Past, Been. 

Perfect. Having been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

Conjugation of the verb To LOVE. 

ACTIVE VOICE, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 







Present Tense. 




Singular, 


PluraL 


1. 


I love. 


I. We love. 


2. 


Thou lovest. 


2. You love. 


3, 


He loves. 


3. They love. 
Past Tense. 




Singular. 


PluraL 


1. 


I loved. 


I. We loved. 


2. 


Thou lovedst. 


.2. You loved. 


%. 


He loved. 


3. They loved. 




Singular. 


Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 


I. 


I have loved. 


1. We have loved. 


2. 


Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 


3. 


He has loved. 


3. They have loved. 




Singular. 


Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 


1. 


I had loved. 


I. We had loved. 


2. 


Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 


3. 


He had loved. 


3. They had loved. 
First Future Tense. 




Singular, 


Plural. 


1. 


I will love. 


I. We will love. 


2. 


Thou wilt love. 


2. You will love. 


1 


He will love. 


3. They will love. 



Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will have loved. 1. We will have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Note. — In the Active voice, the Subjunctive Mood has two 
forms in the Present tense only. 
6* E 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 





Present Tense- 


-Regular form. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I love. 
If thou lovest. 
If he loves. 


Plural. 

2. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 



Present Tense— -Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou lo-ve. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved. 1. If we have loved. 

2. If thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved. 

3. If he has loved. S. If they have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved. 1. If we had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 2. If you had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will love. 1. If we will love. 

2. If thou wilt love. 2. If you will love. 

3. If he will love. 3. If they will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will have loved. 1. If we will have loved. 

2. If thou wilt have loved. 2. If you will have loved. 

3. If he will have loved. 3. If they will have loved. 



F/fYMOLOGY. 



67 



Singular. 

1. I may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 

3. He may love. 



Singular. 

1. I might love. 

2. Thou mightst love.' 

3. He might love. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense, 

Plural. 

1. We may love. 

2. You may love. 

3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We might love. 

2. You might love. 

3. They might love. 



Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. . 
Present Sense. 

Singular. Plural. 

Love, or love thou. Love, or love you. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. . Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Note. — The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by placing 
before its Perfect Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, 
and persons of the verb To be. 

Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 
3= He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I will be loved. 1. We will be loved. 

2. Thou wilt be loved. 2. You will be loved. 

3. He will be loved. 3. They will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will have been loved. 1. We will have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Xote. — In the Passive voice, the Subjunctive Mood has two 
forms, both for the Present tense and the Past. 

Present Tense — Regular form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am loved. 1. If we are loved. 

2. If thou art loved. 2. If you are loved. 

3. If he is loved, 3. If they are loved. 

Present Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If vre be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense — Regular form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wast loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he was loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Past Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved. 1. If we have been loved. 

2. If thou hast been loved. 2. If you have been loved. 

3. If he has been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved. 1. If we had been loved. 

2. If thou hadst been loved. 2. If you had been loved. 

3. If he had been loved. 3. If they had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will be loved. 1. If we will be loved. 

2. If thou wilt be loved. 2. If you will be loved. 

3. If he will be loved. 3. If they will be loved. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Future Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will have been loved. 1. If we will have been loved. 

2. If thou wilt have been loved. 2. If you will have been loved. 

3. If he will have been loved. 3. If they will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 
3^ He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved. - Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

257. The Progressive Form of a verb is that which repre- 
sents the action as in progress, or as incomplete. 

258. The Progressive form of any verb is made by placing 
before its Present Participle the various moods, tenses, num- 
bers, and persons of the verb to be. 

Note. — This is sometimes called the Progressive form, as 
above, because it represents the action as still in progress; 
sometimes, the Imperfect form, because action in progress is 
necessarily incomplete; and sometimes the Definite form, be- 
cause it marks the time of the action in every case with perfect 
definiteness and precision. 

. Exercises in the Progressive Form. 

Conjugate the verb "sing" through all the tenses of the 
Indicative mood, in the Progressive form. 

Conjugate "know" through the Subjunctive mood, Progres- 
sive form. 

Conjugate "write" through the Potential mood, Progressive 
form. 

Conjugate "stand" through the Imperative and Infinitive 
moods, Progressive form. 

Remark. — A verb in the Progressive form is always in the 
Active voice. 

EMPHATIC FORM. 

259. The Emphatic Form of a verb is that in which the 
assertion is expressed with emphasis. 

260. The Emphatic Form is used only in the Present and 
Past tenses of the Indicative and the Subjunctive moods, Active 
voice, and in the Imperative mood, both Active and Passive. 

261. The Emphatic Form of a verb is made by placing before 
it the verb do as an auxiliary. 



72 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

Conjugation of the verb To Lote, in the Emphatic Form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. t . 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. " 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense — Eegu lar form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I do love. 1. If we do love. 

2. If thou dost love. 2. If you do love. * 

3. If he does love. 3. If they do love. 

Present Tense — Subjunctive form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I do love. 1. If we do love. 



2. 
3. 


If thou do love. 
If he do love. 


2. If you do love. 

3. If they do love. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I did love. 
If thou didst love 
If he did love* 


Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we did love. 

2. If you did love. 

3. If they did love. 

IMPERATIVE. 



Active — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) love. Plural. Do (you) love. 

Passive — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) be loved. Plural. Do (you) be loved. 



ETYMOLOGY; 73 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

262. When the Subjunctive mood expresses only uncertainty, 
contingency, or dcubt, the Regular Form is used. Thus, " If 
thou livest virtuously, thou doest well." 

263. When, in the present tense, the Subjunctive mood ex- 
presses not only uncertainty, contingency, or doubt, but also 
future time, the Subjunctive Form should be used. Thus, 
"If he continue impenitent, he will perish." The accompany- 
ing verb "will perish," being in the future tense, shows that 
the meaning of " continue" is future, although its form is that 
of the present. It is probably only an abbreviation for " should 
continue." >* 

264. When, in the past tense, the Subjunctive of the passive 
voice, or the Subjunctive of the verb to be, expresses not only 
uncertainty, contingency, or doubt, but also present time, the 
Subjunctive Form should be used. Thus, "If he were less 
admired, he would be more beloved ;" " If he were here, he 
would do it immediately." 

265. Lest and that, following the imperative, require the Sub- 
junctive Form; as, "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." 



PARSING EXERCISES. 

Sentence. — "James writes a letter." Parse "writes. 

Model. — "Writes" (1.) is a verb, it contains an assertion; 
(2.) transitive, it requires an objective case after it; (3.) irre- 
gular, it does not form its past tense and perfect participle by 
the addition of d or ed (Pres. write, Past, wrote, Perf. P. writ- 
ten) ; (4.) active voice, it denotes that the nominative "James" 
acts or does the thing mentioned; (5.) indicative mood, the 
assertion is expressed directly and without limitation; (6.) 
present tense, it denotes present time ; (7.) third person, singu- 
lar number (I write, thou writest, he writes, or James writes). 

Abbreviated Model. — "Writes" is (1.) a verb, (2.) transi- 
tive, (3.) irregular (write, wrote, written), (4.) active voice, (5.) 
indicative mood, (6.) present tense, (7.) third person, singular 
number. 
7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercises. — Parse all the Verbs in the following sentences : 

A witty punster may afford amusement to persons, but amuse- 
ment is not the business of life, though it tend ever so much to 
relieve the mind. Therefore, do not consider him a model 
worthy of imitation. 

My son, wert thou a father, thou couldst understand the 
feelings of him who now mourns over the wrong which thou 
hast committed. Had I been thy son, I think I would not only 
have been grieved on account of that which I had done, but 
also would have regretted that I had caused sorrow in the 
breast of him, who loved me so tenderly. 

The. miser will will his property to those who will perhaps 
use it for sinful purposes. Had he had less avarice, his happi- 
ness would have been increased. Do not do as he does, lest 
thou, like him, become a wretched man, and have to say, "I have 
been heaping up riches all my life, but I have not been increas- 
ing my happiness. Had I been adding to the happiness of 
others, and laying up treasures where moth and rust do not 
corrupt, I would have been employing myself better and saving 
my soul." 

If a man smite his servant, and he die, he shall surely be 
put to death. 

If he acquire riches they will corrupt his mind. 

Though he is high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

Despise not any condition, lest it happen to be thine own. 

Take care that thou break not any of the established rules. 

" Is there — is there balm in Gilead ? tell me, I implore \" 
Quoth the raven, " Never more." 

ADVEEBS. 

266. An Adverb is a word used to qualify a 
Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb; as, He 
writes rapidly. 

267. Adverbs are not necessary parts of speech, as their 
meaning can always be expressed by other parts of speech. 
They generally express in one word what would otherwise 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

require several. Here, for instance, means " in this place ;" 
7ioiv means " at this time," &c. 

268. Some of the adverbs appear to be formed by the com- 
bination of two or more words, which have gradually coalesced 
into one. Thus, bravely is an abbreviation of brave-Zi&e, wisely 
of wise-Zj&e, happily of happy-Zi&e, &c. Others again are com- 
posed of nouns, and the letter a used for at, on, &c. ; as, aside, 
ahead, aboard, ashore, aground, afloat. The composition of 
others is still more apparent ; as, hereof, thereof, hereby, &c. 

269. Sometimes several words are taken together and called 
an adverbial phrase ; as, at length, in vain, &c. These expres- 
sions are elliptical, and the ellipsis can almost always be sup- 
plied. Whenever this can be done, the words should be parsed 
separately. 

270. Some adverbs perform at the same time the office of 
adverbs and of conjunctions; as, "They will come when they 
are ready." Here, " when" both declares the time of the action, 
and so is an adverb ; and also connects the two verbs, and so is 
a conjunction. These are called by some grammarians, con- 
junctive adverbs ; by others, adverbial conjunctions. The 
most common of them are, when, where, whither, whenever, 
wherever, then, &c. 

271. The adverb there is often used as a mere expletive, appa- 
rently without any signification of its own, as in this sentence, 
" There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 

272. Some words are used sometimes as adverbs, and some- 
times as adjectives. Among these are the following: little, less, 
least, better, best, much, more, most, no, only, well, ill, still, first. 
If any of these words qualifies a noun, it is an adjective; but, 
if it qualifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb, then it is an 
adverb. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

273. Many Adverbs are compared, as Adjectives 
are. 

274. Some Adverbs are compared by adding er 
and est to the Positive ; as ; soon, sooner, soonest. 



76 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

275. Adverbs ending in ly are compared by pre- 
fixing more and most, less and least ; as, happily, more 
happily, most happily ; less happily, least happily. 

276. The following are compared irregularly : 





Irregular Com/f 


)arison. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Well 


better 


best 


111 


worse 


worst 


Badly 


worse 


worst 


Much 


more 


most 


Far 


farther 


farthest. 



Classes of Verbs. 

277. Adverbs are divided into classes, according to their 
signification. The most important of these classes are 

1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality ; as, well, ill, swiftly, 
smoothly, truly, with a great many others formed from adjec- 
tives by adding the termination ly. This is by far the most 
numerous class of adverbs. 

2. Adverbs of Place ; as, here, there, where, hither, thither, 
whither, hence, thence, whence, somewhere, nowhere, &c. 

3. Adverbs of Time ; as, now, then, when, ever, never, soon, 
often, seldom, lately, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Quantity; as, much, little, sufficiently, 
enough, scarcely, &c. 

5. Adverbs of Direction; as, downward, upward, forward, 
backward, homeward, heavenward, hitherward, thitherward, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Number, Order, &c. (including all those 
formed from the Numeral Adjectives) ; as, first, secondly, 
thirdly, &c. ; once, twice, thrice, &c. ; singly, doubly, triply, &c. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation ; as, yes, no, 
verily, indeed, nay, nowise, doubtless, &c. 

8. Adverbs of Interrogation ; as, how, why, when, where, 
whither, whence, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

9. Adverbs of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, least, better, 
best, very, exceedingly, nearly, almost, &c. 

10. Adverbs of Uncertainty ; as, perchance, perhaps, per- 
adventure. 

Note. — The above is not intended as a complete list of 
Adverbs, nor even a complete classification of them. 



Parsing Exercises. — Sentence. — " John wrote the letter 
hastily." 

Model. — "Hastily" (1.) is an adverb, it qualifies the verb 
" wrote ;" (2.) it is an adverb of manner, it tells the manner in 
which he wrote; (3.) it is compared, hastily, more hastily, most 
hastily. 

Note. — When the adverb does not admit of comparison, the 
third thing to say of it will be, " not compared." 

Parse all the Adverbs in the following sentences : 

There was no orator who spoke more fluently. Thrice was 
he applauded. Turn your eye whither you would, you might 
see persons attentively listening. Seldom was such an atten- 
tive multitude assembled in our much too quiet village. 

When the water was hot enough, he boiled the herbs in it 
thoroughly and made the tea sufficiently strong. 

This idle boy was the least attentive of the scholars, and 
studied least. He therefore received the least amount of benefit. 
Better boys will behave better and reap a better reward. 

Parse all the Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Verbs in the 
foregoing sentences. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

278. A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words and sentences ; as, John and James study ; 
John writes and James reads. (Appendix 22.) 

279. The following are the principal Conjunctions : and, as, 
also, because, both, for, if, since, that, then, therefore, wherefore, 
or, nor, either, neither, but, yet, than, lest, though, although, 
unless, whether, &c. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

First Model. — "John and James are brothers." "And" 
is a conjunction, it connects the noun "John" with the noun 
"James." 

Note. — When conjunctions connect words, those words w r ill 
be the same parts of speech, that is a verb and a verb, an 
adjective and an adjective, &c., except that nouns and pronouns 
may be connected by a conjunction. 

Second Model. — "John studies his lesson carefully, but 
James is very negligent of his lesson." "But" is a conjunc- 
tion, it connects the sentence "John studies his lesson care- 
full} 7 ," with the sentence "James is very negligent of his 
lesson." 

Parse each of the Conjunctions in the following sentences : 
Unless a man lacks virtue, whether he is humble in rank or 
poor in purse, he is worthy of respect and esteem. Yet there 
are some who, notwithstanding their wealth and the advantages 
of fortune, are deemed respectable, though their vicious habits 
should subject them to contempt. These shun the virtuous 
poor, lest they might degrade themselves in their own estima- 
tion. But they forget that they might be improved by inter- 
course with their virtuous but poor brethren. 

Insert proper conjunctions in the following sentences: 

I shall need an umbrella, it rain to-morrow ; 

it is a clear day, I shall not need it, I never use it to pro- 



The colonel remained at his post, he was nearly fainting 

from the loss of blood the pain of his wounds. He de- 
clared no one else should stand by the flag ; he would 

protect it, while he had life strength left. Faithfully 

heroically he kept his word. 

Review Exercise. — Parse each of the Nouns, Adjectives, 
Pronouns, Verbs, and Adverbs in the foregoing sentences. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

PREPOSITIONS. 

280. A Preposition is a word placed before a 
noun to show its relation to some other word ; as, I 
write with a pen. 

Note. — With, in this example, shows the relation of pen to 
the word write: it connects the act and the instrument, and 
shows the relation between them. Prepositions and Conjunc- 
tions are both connecting w T orcls, and are intimately related. 

281. Some of the Prepositions are original and uncompounded 
words. These are the most important, and should be thoroughly 
committed to memory. Nearly all of them refer in some way 
to place or position. 

282. The Simple Prepositions are nineteen; viz., 
at, after, hj, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, 
round, since, through, till, to, under, up, with. 

Note. — After is supposed to be the comparative of aft. 
Doubts have been raised in regard to the true character of past 

283. The prefix a, which occurs in so many English com- 
pounds, represents a variety of small words, such as at, of, in, 
on, to, &c. In the compound prepositions in which this occurs, 
it generally represents on or in. The other part of the com- 
pound is some noun, adjective, adverb, or other preposition. 

284. The Prepositions formed by prefixing a (on or in), are 
as follows : above, about, across, against, along, amid or amidst, 
among or amongst, around, athwart. 

285. Several Prepositions are formed in like manner by pre- 
fixing be (by) to various nouns, adjectives, adverbs, &c. 

286. The Prepositions formed by prefixing be are : before, 
behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, 
beyond. 

287. Several Compound Prepositions are formed by uniting 
without change two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb. 
These are: upon, toward, towards, unto, into, within, without, 
throughout, underneath. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

288. According to, instead of, and out of, are sometimes 
inserted among the compound prepositions. But there is no 
necessity of such a course. The words are written separately, 
and may all be parsed separately. According is an adjective or 
participle, and always belongs to some noun expressed or under- 
stood. Instead is simply in stead. Out is either an adverb or 
an adjective, according to circumstances. 

289. Bating, concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respect- 
ing, touching, though participles, strictly speaking, frequently 
have the construction of prepositions and may be so parsed. 

290. There is no more reason for considering near and nigh 
prepositions than for considering like one. The preposition to 
is understood in all such cases; thus, "like (to) a man," "near 
(to) the city," "nigh (to) the river." An ellipsis of from after 
the adverb off has in like manner caused the latter word some- 
times to be inserted incorrectly among the prepositions. Ex. 
" off (from) his horse." 



Parsing Exercises. — Model. — "John walks on the roof." 
" On" is a preposition, it is placed before the noun " roof;" and 
it shows a relation between "roof" and "walks," it tells on 
what he walks. 

Parse each of the Prepositions in the following sentences : 

In the morning of a sunny Sabbath day, the village child- 
ren, with happy faces, were on their way to the house of God. 
The sun that looked down from above upon them, the blue 
sky over them, and the flowery earth beneath their feet, were 
not more brilliant than the glance of their eyes. Hand in 
hand they went along the path leading to the church, with 
praise upon their tongues, and gratitude reigning within their 
hearts. 

Review Exercise. — Parse each of the Nouns, Adjectives, 
Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, and Conjunctions in the foregoing 
sentences. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

INTERJECTIONS. 

291. An Interjection is a word used in making 
sudden exclamations; as ; oh! all! 

292. The principal Interjections are, adieu, ah, alas, alack, 
aha, begone, hark, ho, ha, he, hail, halloo, hum, hush, hist, huzza, 
lo, 0, oh, pshaw, see, &c. 

£93. Some of the words usually called interjections are other 
parts of speech, and may be parsed accordingly ; as, behold, a 
verb in the imperative; strange! an ellipsis for it is strange, &c. 
When the words are not resolvable in this way, but are mere 
exclamations (and these are the only true interjections), it 
seems doubtful whether they ought to be considered as a part 
of speech, any more than the barking of a dog or the mere noise 
of any other animal. 



GENERAL PARSING EXERCISE. 

Parse each of the words in the following sentences: 
Benjamin West's aptitude for drawing, exhibited in his boy- 
hood, was extraordinary. No restraint could check it. When, 
in later years, he was painting Death on the Pale Horse, 
Garrick the actor asked him "if he should die for him," 
meaning, "Shall I imitate a dying man ?" "0! no/' replied 
West, thinking apparently that Garrick wished to do him a 
great service, or intended to show a great affection for him or 
a great admiration of his genius, by actually dying. 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

That is a Relative Pronoun, when who, whom, or which may be 

used in its place. Ex. He is the wisest man that lives in 

our village. 
That is a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun, when the may be 

used instead of it. Ex. "That house which I see," means 

" the house which I see." 
That is a Conjunction in all other cases. Ex. He wears warm 

clothes that he may not catch cold. Here, who, whom, which, 

or the, could not be used for that. 
But is a Preposition, when it means except. Ex. He lost all his 

„ books but (except) his dictionary. 
But is an Adverb, when it means only. Ex. I but (only) touched 

him and he cried. 
But is a Conjunction in all other instances. 
Either is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means one of 

the two. Ex. Either of the boys may do it. 
Either is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
Neither is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means not 

one of the two. 
Neither is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
Both is an Adjective, when it means the two. Ex. Both shoes 

need mending. 
Both is a Conjunction in all other cases. Ex. I both love and 

respect him. 
For is a Conjunction, when it means because, and is used in giving 

a reason. Ex. I obey him, for he is my father. The reason 

for the obedience is, He is my father. 
For is a Preposition in all other cases. 
As, meaning because, or since, is a Conjunction. Ex. As the wind 

was favorable, we set saiL 
As, in all other cases, is an Adverb. 
While, meaning to pass or spend (time), is a Verb. Ex. They 

managed to while away the hour very pleasantly. 
While, meaning a portion of time, is a Noun. Ex. Let us sing a 

while. 
While, meaning during the time that, is an Adverb. Ex. The act 

was done while I was absent. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

Before, After, Till, and Until, when followed by a noun or 
pronoun in the objective case, are Prepositions. Ex. : 
Come before dinner. 
Come after dinner. 
Wait till midnight. 
Wait until your turn. 
Before, After, Till, and Until, when not followed by a noun' 
or pronoun in the objective case, are Adverbs. Ex. : 
Come before I have dined. 
Come after I have dined. 
Wait till I have dined. 
Wait until I have dined. 
What is a Compound Relative, when that which or those which can 
be used in its stead. Ex. Eat ivhat is set before you. That 
is, Eat that which is set before you. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun, when used to ask a question. 

Ex. What do you see ? 
What is an Adjective Pronoun, when joined with a noun, and 

meaning how great. Ex. What wonders he performed. 
What is an Adjective Pronoun and a Relative at the same time, 
when joined to a noun, and equivalent to that which or 
those which. Ex. He gave what money he had to the poor. 
That is, he gave that money which he had. 
What, when uttered as a mere exclamation, and to denote sur- 
prise, is an Interjection. Ex. What! abuse your mother ! 
Then, meaning in that case, or therefore, is a Conjunction. Ex. If 

all this be so, then I am right. 
Then, in all other instances, is an Adverb. 
Since, meaning for the reason that, is a Conjunction. Ex. Since it 

is your wish, I will certainly do it. 
Since, when placed before a noun denoting a period of time, is a 

Preposition. Ex. I have had no food since Monday. 
Since, in other cases, is an Adverb. 
Yet, meaning nevertheless, notwithstanding, is a Conjunction. Ex. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Yet, meaning up to a certain time, or over and above, is an Adverb. 
Ex. Has the boy come yet ? 
I will give you yet one more reason. 



84 ENGLISH GEAMMAE, 

■DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

294. By the Derivation of words is meant tracing 
them to their original form and meaning. (Appen- 
dix 23.) 

295. A Primitive word is a word in its original form ; as, good. 

296. A Derivative word is a word formed from another by 
some change in its termination, or by the addition of some 
letters at the beginning or end of the word ; as, goodness. 
When the additional letters make by themselves an entire word, 
the word formed is generally called a compound; as, landlord. 

297. A letter or syllable placed at the beginning of a word, 
is called & prefix. 

298. A letter or syllable placed at the end of a word, is called 
an affix or suffix. 

299. The Prefixes are generally prepositions, and belong to 
three principal classes, viz., the Saxon, the Latin, and the Greek. 

PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. 

A signifies on or in; as, ashore, that is, on shore. 

Be signifies about; as, bestir, that is, stir about; also, jfor or 
before; as, bespeak, that is, to speak for or before. It has also 
several other meanings. 

For denies ; as, bid,/brbid (bid not to do a thing). 

Fore signifies before; as, see, foresee. 

Mis signifies defect or error; as, take, mistake (take in a 
wrong way). 

Over denotes superiority or excess; as, done, overdone (done to 
excess). 

Out signifies excess or superiority ; as, run, outrun. 
■ Un before an adjective, signifies not; as, worthy, u n worthy ; 
before a verb it signifies the undoing of the act expressed by 
the verb ; as, tie, untie. 

Up denotes motion upward; as, start, wpstart; and also, sub- 
version; as, set, upset. 

With signifies against, from ; as, stand, withstand ; draw, 
withdv&w. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

PREFIXES OF LATIX ORIGIX. 

A (ab or abs) signifies from or away; as, abstract, to draw 
away. 

Ad, signifies to, at; as, adjoin, to join to (Ad assumes dif- 
ferent forms according to the first letter of the root to which it 
is prefixed; as, ascend, accede, affect, aggrieve, &c). 

Ambi from amlio, both, signifies double; as, ambiguous (having 
two meanings). 

Ante signifies before ; thus, antediluvian, before the flood. 

Bene signifies good, well ; as, benevolent, well disposed. 

Bi or bis means two or twice; as, bisect, to cut into two parts. 

Circum signifies round, about; as, circumnavigate, to sail 
round. 

Cis signifies on this side; as, cis-alpine, on this side the Alps. 

Con (com, co, or col) signifies together ; as, convoke, to call 
together. 

Contra (counter, coniro) signifies against ; as, contradict, to 
speak against ; counteract, to act against. 

Be signifies of, from, or down ; as, dethrone, to drive from the 
throne. 

Di (dis, dif) signifies asunder ; as, distract, to draw asunder. 
It also signifies negation or undoing ; as, disobey, not to obey. 

E (ex) signifies out of; as, elect, to choose out of. 

Equi signifies equal ; as, equidistant, at an equal distance. 

Extra signifies aid of, beyond ; as, extraordinary, beyond the 
ordinary course. 

In, before an adjective, serves as a negative ; as, active, inac- 
tive; before a verb, in signifies in or into; as, include, to close in. 

Inter signifies between ; as, intervene, to come between. 

Intro signifies to, within; as, introduce, to lead in. 

Juxta signifies nigh to; as, juxtaposition, placed near to. 

Mai or male (from mains, bad) signifies ill or bad ; as, mal- 
practice, bad practice. 

Manu (from manns, a hand) signifies with or by the hand ; as, 
manuscript, anything written by the hand. 

Multi signifies many ; as, multiform, having many forms. 

8 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ob (oc, of, o, op) signifies opposition; as, obstacle, something 
standing in opposition, 

Omni signifies all; as, omnipotent, all powerful. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly ; as, perfect, thoroughly 
done, finished. 

Post signifies after; as, postscript, written after. 

Prce or pre signifies before ; as, prepaid, paid before. 

Pro signifies/bnf/i or forwards ; as, promote, to move forwards. 

Prceler or preter signifies past or beyond ; as, preternatural, 
beyond the course of nature. 

Re signifies again or bach; as, regain, to gain back. 

Betro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, going backwards. 

Se signifies apart or without ; as, secrete, to hide, to put aside. 

Sine signifies without ; as, sinecure, without care or labor. 

Sub signifies under ; as, submarine, under the sea. 

Super signifies above or over ; as, superscribe, to write above 
or over. 

Trans signifies over, from one place to another ; as, transport, 
to carry over. 

PREFIXES OF GREEK ORIGIN. 

A or an signifies privation or without; as, anonymous, with- 
out a name. 

Amphi signifies both or the two ; as, amphibious, having two 
lives, or capable of living both on land and in water. 

Ana signifies through or up; as, anatomy, (literally) a cutting 
up. 

Anti (ant) signifies against; as, antichristian, against Chris- 
tianity ; antarctic, opposite the arctic. 

Apo (ap) signifies from; as. apogee, from the earth ; aphelion, 
from the sun. 

Via signifies through; as, diameter, a measure through. 

Epi signifies upon ; as, epidemic, upon or among the people. 

Hyper signifies over, above; as, hypercritical, over critical, 
too critical. 

Hypo signifies under, implying concealment; as, hypocrite, a 
person concealing his real character. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



87 



Meta signifies change, transmutation; as, metamorphosis, a 
change of shape. 

Mono signifies single; as, monosyllable, a word of one syllable. 

Para signifies beyond, on one side ; as, paradox, an opinion 
beyond or contrary to the general opinion. 

Peri signifies round or about; as, perimeter, a measure round. 

Poly signifies many ; as, polysyllable, a word of many syl- 
lables. 

Semi (demi, hemi) signifies half; as, semicircle, half of a 
circle ; hemisphere, half of a sphere. 

Syn [sy, syl, sym) signifies with, together ; as, sympathy, feel- 
ing with. 

AFFIXES. 

300. The Affixes are very numerous, and cannot always be 
traced satisfactorily to their origin. They are generally classi- 
fied according to their signification. The following are the 
principal classes. 

301. Affixes denoting the agent'ov doer: 

an, as in guardian, ent, as in adherent. 



ant, 

ar, 

ard, 

ary, 

eer, 



assisted. 



beggar. 



302. 



baker. 

conformist. 

operate. 

inspector. 

punster. 



er, 
ist, 
dotard. ive, 

adversary. or, 

charioteer. ster, 

Affixes denoting the person acted upon : 
ate, as in potentate. ite, as in favorite, 

ee, assignee. 

303. Affixes denoting being or state of being : 

ment, as in achieveme?if. 



acy, 


as in piracy. 


age, 


bondage. 


ance, 


repentance. 


ancy, 


Vagrancy. 


ence, 


adherence. 


ency, 


emergency. 


hood, 


boyhood. 


ion, 


exhaustion. 


ism, 


despotism. 



mony, 


acrimony. 


ness. 


acuteness. 


nj, 


rivab^y. 


ship, 


friends7eip: 


th, 


dep^L 


hide, 


apti/wrfe. 


ty, 


loyally. 


ure, 


disclosure. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



304. Affixes denoting jurisdiction: 
dom, as in kingdom. 

305. Affixes denoting diminution : 
cle, as in corpuscZe. 
kin, lambkin, 
let, stream let. 

306. Affixes denoting of or pertaining to: 
ac, as in elegiac. 
at, autumnaZ. 
an, republican. 
ar, consular. 
ary, momenta?'?/. 
en, wooden. 

307. Affixes denoting full of: 
ate, as in affectionate. 
ful, hope/nZ. 
ose, globose. 

308. Affixes denoting capacity : 
ire, as in communicate. 
able, profita5Ze. 

309. Affixes denoting to make: 
ate, as in alienaZe. 
en, brighten. ize, 
fy, justify. 

310. Miscellaneous affixes : 

like signifies likeness, as in 

ly " " " 

ish 

less " 

ward " 



vie, as in bishop?'Zc. 

ling, as in duckling, 
ock. hillock. 



ic, as in angelic. 


ical, 


can on ical. 


He, 


infanU'Zc. 


ine, 


adamantine. 


ory, 


expiaton/. 


ous, 


as in hazardous, 


some, 


gladsome. 


y> 


pith?/. 



ible, as in contemptioZe. 



ise, as in epitom/se. 
methodic. 



saintZ/Are. 
maidenZy. 



small degree of anything, as in hlaokish. 
negation, " artless. 

in the direction of, " homeward. 



THIRD PART. 



SYNTAX. 

311. The third part of Grammar is called Syntax. 

312. Syntax treats of Sentences. 

313. A Sentence is a number of words making 
a complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

314. Two or more words rightly put together/ and 
not making a complete sense, are called a Phrase. 

315. The principal parts of a sentence are the 
Subject (or nominative), the Attribute (or verb), 
and the Object. 

Thus, in the sentence, "John studies his lesson," 
"John" is the subject, or thing of which the affirma- 
tion is made, "studies" is the attribute, or thing 
affirmed, and " lessons' 7 is the object. 

316. A Simple sentence is one which contains but 
one subject and one finite verb ; as, Life is short. 

317. A Compound sentence contains two or more 
simple sentences, connected by one or more conjunc- 
tions; as, Life is short, bat art is long. 

318. Ellipsis in Grammar means the omission of 
one or more words necessary to complete the sense. 

Note. — Parsing consists in stating the grammatical proper- 
ties and relations of words, and the rules of Syntax which 
properly apply to them. (See Appendix 24.) 

8* (89) 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

KULE I. 

The subject of the Verb is Nominative to it. 

Explanation. — The subject of the verb is that of which the 
assertion is made. "The book is in the desk/' The subject 
of the assertion here is "book." It is that which is asserted to 
be in the desk. "John and I went home." Here there are two 
subjects, "John" and "I." It is they of whom we say that they 
"went home." Now, the subject of the verb, that of which 
anything is asserted, must be in the nominative case. It would 
be contrary to the Rule, therefore, to say, "John and me went 
home," because "me," one of the subjects, is not in the nomi- 
native case. 

NOTES. 

1. Complex names, such as George Washington, Charles 
Henry Grant, &c, should be taken together in parsing, as if 
they were one word. Thus, we would say, " Charles Henry 
Grant" is a noun, &c. 

2. The subject of the verb may be an Infinitive Mood, or a 
part of a sentence, taken as a noun ; as, " To behave properly 
will gain for us a good name." Here, " To behave" is used in 
the sense of the noun "behavior." It is the subject of the 
verb, just as " behavior" would be, if the sentence were written, 
"Proper behavior will gain for us a good name." 

3. A noun or a pronoun addressed, and not the subject of 
any verb, is in the Nominative Case Independent; as, "Father, 
forgive them." In many languages, this construction forms a 
distinct case, called the Vocative. 

4. A noun or a pronoun put before a participle as its subject, 
and not being the subject of any verb, is in the Nominative 
Case Absolute ; as, " My father dying, I was left an orphan." 

5. In the construction called the case absolute, the nomina- 
tive is the subject of the participle ; and the two words taken 
together form a dependent clause equivalent to a nominative 
and a verb, preceded by a conjunction or an adverb. Thus, 
"Whose grey top shall tremble, he descending;" that is, "ivhen 
he descends." (See Appendix 25.) 



SYNTAX. 91 

6. The noun or pronoun in absolute clauses is often omitted. 
Thus, in the sentence, " Generally speaking, labor is not with- 
out its reward," " speaking" is put absolutely with we, men, or 
some other word of the kind, understood. 

7. The rule for the construction of absolute clauses is violated 
by putting the subject of the participle in any other case than 
the nominative. As the nominative and objective cases of 
nouns are alike, no false syntax can occur under this rule 
except in pronouns. "Him (he) dying, I was left an orphan." 

8. Every nominative case, except the case independent, the 
case absolute, and the case of apposition, should be the subject 
of some verb expressed or understood. This rule is violated by 
putting a noun and its pronoun as nominative to the same 
verb ; as, " The day, it is clear." 

MODELS FOR PARSING AND CORRECTING. 

"James writes a letter." "James" is a proper noun, of the 
masculine gender, in the singular number, third person, and 
nominative case, subject of the verb " writes," and nominative 
to it, according to Rule I., which says, " The subject of the 
verb is nominative to it." 

" He will write a letter." "He" is a personal pronoun, 3d p., 
masc. g., sing, n., and nom. case, subject of the verb "will write," 
and nominative to it, according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

N. B. — In parsing pronouns, certain other things are to be 
said, w'hich will be learned under Rule VII. The parsing in 
the model is complete, as far as it can be given now. 

" To behave properly will gain for us a good name." " To 
behave" is a verb in the infinitive mood, used as a noun, and is 
the subject of the verb " will gain," according to Note 2, Rule I. 
(Quote the Note.) 

" Father, forgive them." " Father" is a com. noun, masc. g., 
sing, n., 2d p., and in the nominative case independent, accord- 
ing to Note 3, Rule I. (Quote Note.) 

" The sash falling suddenly, his finger was crushed." " Sash" 
is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the nominative case 
absolute before the participle "falling," according to Note 4, 
Rule I. (Quote Note.) 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Correct the sentence, "Him and her are of the same age." 
Ans. Him and her are here in the objective case. They should 
be in the nominative, because they are the subjects of the verb 
are, and should read he and she, according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

Correct the sentence, " Solomon was the wisest of men, him 
only excepted who spake as never man spake !" "Him" is here 
in the objective case. It should be in the nominative, because 
it is placed absolutely with "excepted," and should read "he 
only excepted," according to Note 4, Rule I. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " The man, he is rich." lie is super- 
fluous, because it is not the subject of any verb. The sentence 
should read, "The man is rich," according to Note 8, Rule I. 
(Quote Note.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse all the Nominatives in the following sentences, cor- 
recting wherever necessary : 

Virtue ennobles the mind, vice debases it. 

London is a great city. 

A good conscience fears nothing. 

Him and I could not agree. 

They and us agreed to do it. 

You and them had a long dispute. 

Thomas and me learned the lesson together. 

To see the sun is pleasant. 

To cultivate the ground is a pleasant occupation. 

Only good and wise men can be real friends. 

Whence and what art thou, execrable shape? 

Show pity, Lord; 0, Lord, forgive. 

Oh what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 

" Come back, come back, he cried in grief, my daughter, Oh 
my daughter !" 

His disease being thoroughly cured, and the busy season 
having commenced, he should have been at his post. 

Napoleon being banished, peace was restored to Europe. 

Napoleon having raised a large army, crossed the Alps. 

His character, viewing it in the most charitable manner, is 
full of blemishes. 



SYNTAX. 93 

Them descending, the ladder fell. 
Whom being dead, the hostility ceased. 
Him excepted, John was the worst of the party. 
My banks, they are furnished with bees. 
This truth, if it had been attended to, the parties would Wave 
escaped a great deal of trouble. 

EULE II. 

A Verb agrees with its Nominative in Num- 
ber and Person. 

NOTES. 

1. Rule II. is violated by putting the verb in any other number 
or person than its nominative ; as, " They was present/ 7 

2. In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential moods, every 
verb should have a nominative expressed, except where two or 
more verbs are connected in the same construction. 

3. A verb in the Infinitive mood has no subject or nomina- 
tive (p. 48, art. 221, and Appendix 26). In the Imperative 
mood, the subject or nominative is omitted, thou, or you being 
understood (p. 50, note 3).- 

4. When the subject or nominative of the verb is an infinitive 
mood, or a part of a sentence, the verb should be singular ; as, 
" To see the sun is pleasant." But if there are two or more 
infinitives, or clauses, making distinct subjects, then the verb 
should be plural; as, "To skate and to play cricket are health- 
ful amusements." 

5. When a verb has for its nominative a collective noun in 
the singular, expressing unity of idea, the verb should be sin- 
gular ; as, " The class is large." But, whenever such nomina- 
tive expresses plurality of idea, the verb should be plural ; as, 
" The multitude pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

6. Some nouns, which are not considered nouns of multitude, 
are frequently used in the singular form, with a plural mean- 
ing : as, " Ten sail of the line were seen off the coast." In 
such cases the verb should be plural. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. "It," used indefinitely (p. 37, art. 165) before a verb which 
has a nominative case after it (Rule VI., Note 9), is the subject 
of that verb, and the verb agrees with it, and not with the other 
nominative ; thus, " It is I," not " It am I ;" " It is they," not 
"Ifrare they." 

8. Two or more nominatives connected by and, expressed or 
understood, require a verb in the plural ; as, " Socrates and 
Plato were wise." The verb in such cases should be plural, 
because the assertion is made of all the nominatives. For the 
same reason, ail the nouns and pronouns, representing such 
nominatives, should be plural; as, "Filthiness and bad food 
are sources of disease," not " a source," &c. 

9. When singular nominatives, though connected by and, 
belong to separate propositions, they have a singular verb ; as, 
" The wine, and not the bottle, was used." Nominatives con- 
nected by and belong to separate propositions, when accom- 
panied by each, every, no, not, or some other disuniting word ; 
as, "Every house, every grove was burnt," "Good order, and 
not mean savings, produces profits." In the former sentence, 
the meaning is, "Every house was burnt, and every grove was 
burnt." In the latter, " Good order produces profits, and mean 
savings do not." 

10. Two or more nominatives connected by and, if used to 
express only one subject, require a verb in the singular; as, 
" That eminent statesman and orator is dead." 

11. Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by 
or or nor, require a verb in the singular ; as, " Ignorance or 
prejudice lias caused the mistake." The verb in such cases 
should be singular, because the assertion is true of only one of 
these nominatives. For the same reason, all the nouns or pro- 
nouns, representing such nominatives, should be singular. If 
any one of the nominatives thus connected by or or nor is plural, 
the verb must be plural; as, "Either he or they were mistaken." 

12. When a verb has nominatives of different persons, con- 
nected by and, the verb agrees with the first person rather than 
the second, and with the second rather than the third; as, "He 
and I shared the peach between us" " Shared," here, should 
be parsed as in the first person.. 



SYNTAX. - 95 

13. When a verb has nominatives of different persons, con- 
nected by or or nor, the verb agrees in person with the nomi- 
native nearest to it; as, "Either thou or I am mistaken" 

MODELS FOR PARSING AND CORRECTING. ' 

"James writes a letter/ 7 ""Writes" is a transitive verb-, irre- 
gular (Pres. write, Past, wrote, Perf. P. written), active voice, 
indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, 
to agree with its nominative "James," according to Rule II. 
(Quote Rule.) 

"To play in the mud soils the clothes." " Soils" is a trans, 
verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., to 
agree with the verb " to play" in the infinitive mood used as a 
noun, according to Note 4, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" Thou shall not steal, is the eighth commandment." " Is" 
is an int. v., irr., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., sing, n., to agree with 
its nominative, " Thou shall not steal," a part of a sentence 
used as a noun, according to Note 4, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" The class recite well." " Recite" is an intrans. verb, reg., 
act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., to agree with its 
nominative " class," a collective noun expressing a plural idea, 
according to Note 5, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

"Socrates and Plato ivere wise." "Were" is an intrans. 
verb, irr., ind. m., past t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., because it has 
two nominatives, " Socrates" and Plato," connected by " and," 
according to Note 8, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" If that skilful painter and glazier comes to town, be sure to 
employ him." " Comes" is an intrans. verb, irr., act, v., ind. m., 
pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., because its two nominatives, 
"painter" and "glazier," express only one subject, according 
to Note 10, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

"Ignorance or prejudice has caused the mistake." "Has 
caused" is a trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., perf. t., 3d p., and 
in the sing, n., because its two nominatives, "ignorance" and 
" prejudice," are in the singular, connected by or, according to 
Note 11, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" He and I shared the peach between us." " Shared" is a 



96 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., past t., in the 1st p., according 
to Note 12, Rule II. (Quote Note), and in the pi. n., according 
to Note 8, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " I loves study/' Ans. " Loves" is in 
the third person. It should be in the first person, to agree with 
its nominative, " I," and should read, " I love study," according 
to Eule II. (Quote.) 

Correct the sentence, " The days of man is but as grass." 
Ans. " Is" is singular. It should be plural, because its nomi- 
native, "days," is plural, and should read, " The days of man 
are but as grass," according to Eule II. (Quote Eule.) 

Correct the following sentence: "Dear Sir; Have just re- 
ceived your letter." Ans. " Have received" is a verb in the 
indicative mood, without any nominative expressed. It should 
read, " I have received," according to Note 2, under Eule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " To play in the mud and to walk 
through the wet grass, soils the clothes." Ans. " Soils" is 
singular. It should be plural, and should read " soil," because 
it has for its nominative two infinitives, "to play" and "to walk," 
making two distinct subjects, according to Note 4, Eule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " The people has no opinion of their 
own." Ans. " Has" is singular. It should be plural, because 
it has for its nominative " people," a collective noun expressing 
plurality of idea, and it should read, " The people have no 
opinion," according to Note 5, Eule. II. (Q,uote Note.) 

Correct the following sentence, " Life and death is in the 
power of the tongue." Ans. " Is" is singular. It should be 
plural, because it has two nominatives connected by " and," 
and should read, "Life and death are," &c, according to Note 
8, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " That distinguished poet, orator, and 
scholar are dead." Ans. "Are" is plural. It should be "tV 
(singular), because the nominatives "poet," "orator," and 
"scholar," connected by "and," express only one subject, and 
require a verb singular, according to Note 10, Eule II. (Quote 
Note.) 



SYNTAX. .97 

Correct the following sentence, " Neither precept nor dis- 
cipline are so forcible as example." Ans. ''Are" is plural. It 
should be singular, because it has two singular nominatives 
connected by nor, and should read, " Neither precept nor dis- 
cipline is," &c, according to Note 11, Bule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the following: "Either I or thou am greatly mis- 
taken. " Ans. " Am" is first person. It should be second 
person, to agree with the nearest nominative "thou," and should 
read, "Either I or thou art greatly mistaken," according to 
Note 13, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Verbs and Nominatives in the following sentences, 
supplying omissions, and correcting where necessary : 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

A soft answer turn away wrath. 

Our most sanguine prospects has often been blasted. 

The number of our days are with thee. 

A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. 

Constant perseverance in the path of virtue will gain respect. 

There was no memoranda kept of the sales. 

The number of the inhabitants amount to one million. 

Have a sufficient quantity of oats been given to the horse ? 

Sufficient data was not given, and the solution of the problems 
were impossible. 

Between grammar and logic there exists many connections. 

Many means was employed, but no one means were found 
efficient. 

Trout was found in abundance. 

"Oats" are a common noun, of the neuter gender, plural 
number, and are governed by the preposition "of." 

His clothes is torn. 

Dear Sir: — Have just received your letter of yesterday. Am 
sorry to hear that the stereotype plates are sold. Hope to have 
better luck next time. On the whole, think have not quite lost 
all chance of them yet. Very truly yours, &c. 

To encourage virtuous actions are praiseworthy. 
9 G 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To love God and keep his commandments, are the whole duty 
of man. 

To eat with unwashed hands, to drink wine, and to eat the 
flesh of certain animals, is forbidden by the Koran. 

Thou shall love the Lord thy God, is the first and great com- 
mandment. 

Send the multitude away, that it may go and buy itself bread. 

Some people is busy and yet does very little. 

Cavalry is not furnished with knapsacks. 

The gang contain all the idle and vicious boys of the village. 

Congress have adjourned. 

The youth of this country is well educated. 

The Board of Health have forbidden the vessel to enter the 
port. 

It is the boys of whom I complain. 

The sacred Scriptures is a guide to our path. 

The smiles of the mob was his reward. 

Four pair of ducks was brought into market. 

Twenty head of sheep was grazing on the hill. 

A great cause of the low state of industry was the restraints 
put upon it. 

His meat were locusts and wild honey. 

The crown of virtue are peace and honor. 

Infantry on foot and knapsacks. 

The Russian army large. 

The company incorporated ; the legislature given 

it a charter. 

The crew variously employed; a part singing, 

another part dancing. 

His food the fruits of the earth, his drink water or 

the juices of berries. 

The crew of the Cumberland drowned; this crew 

a heroic band. 

The time and the place for the conference was agreed upon. 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. 

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 

Prosperity and adversity is sent to us for wise purposes. 

The abuse of wine, not its use, make it a curse. 



SYNTAX. 99 

My brother with two friends have arrived. 

Nothing but the flag and flagstaff were visible. 

A strong argument, and not a loud voice, bring conviction. 

Food, and no water, are not sufficient to support life. 

There was a man and a woman found dead, who were natives 
of England. 

Every city, town, and village were depopulated. 

There seems to be war, famine, and disease at this time on 
the earth. 

On Franklin's tomb is this inscription : " Here lies a states- 
man and philosopher." 

Our parlor and sitting-room were the front room in the second 
story. 

His bread and butter depends upon his exertions. 

The house in which I was born, my boyhood's happy home, 
and the abode of all those whom I hold dear, are now crumb- 
ling to dust. 

The flute or the piano, when skilfully played, produce delight- 
ful music ; but, the sound of a drum, or the squeaking of the 
fife, are discordant. 

Neither the secretaries nor the president was to be blamed. 

To read or to write were equally difficult to him. 

Out of his mouth come neither profanity nor obscenity. 

Neither the laws nor the Constitution is sufficient to insure 
perfect order in the community. 

Neither the captain, nor the passengers, nor any of the crew 
was saved. 

In him were found neither deceit, nor any other vice. 

Here no longer does my wife or children sit at evening. 
Neither my house, nor she who was its chief attraction, have 
been spared by the destroyer, time. 

Has not his ignorance or bad manners made him the scorn 
of everybody? 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

BULB III. 
A Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice, 

GOVERNS THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

Explanation. — This means that a transitive verb, in the 
active voice, always should have an object, and that object 
should be in the objective case. (See Appendix 27.) 

NOTES. 

1. Rule III. is violated in five ways, namely : 1. By putting 
the object of the verb in any other case than the objective; 
as, She asked him and I (me) to do it. 2. By using a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice without an object; as, He ingra- 
tiates (himself) with people. 3. By inserting a preposition 
between the verb and its object ; as, I shall premise (with) a few 
observations. 4. By using an objective with a verb that is not 
transitive ; as, I lie me down to sleep. 5. By using an objective 
case with a transitive verb in the passive voice ; as, He was 
learned arithmetic. To this last item there are some excep- 
tions, sanctioned by the usage of the best writers ; as, I was 
offered, a situation in the custom-house. (See Appendix 28.) 

2. A participle of a Transitive verb, in the Active voice, 
governs the objective case ; as, " The boy, having eaten unripe 
fruit, became sick." 

3. The Relative Pronoun, when in the objective case, gene- 
rally precedes the verb by which it is governed ; as, " The book 
which you see is mine." Here, "which" is the object of the 
verb " see," and is placed before it. 

MODELS FOR PARSING AND CORRECTING. 

" James writes a letter" " Letter" is a com. noun, n. g., sing, 
n., 3d p., and is in the obj. c, governed by "writes," a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice, according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

" The boy, having eaten unripe fruit, became sick." " Fruit" 
is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. c, governed 
by the participle " having eaten," according to Note 2, Rule III. 
(Quote Note.) 



SYXTAX. 101 

"James called Mm" "Him" is a pers. pronoun, 3d p., 

maso. g., sing, n., and in the obj. c., governed by ''called," a 
trans, v. in the act. v., according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

Note.— The parsing of the Pronoun here is complete as far 
as it goes. But there are other things to be learned concerning 
it under Rule VII., before it can be entirely complete. 

"He and they we know, but who art thou?'' " He" and 
"they' 7 should be in the objective case, because they are the 
object of the verb "know." The sentence should be, "Him 
and them we know," according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

"He ingratiates with some by traducing others."' "Ingra- 
tiates," a transitive verb, should not be used without an object. 
Insert "himself." "'He ingratiates himself with some." 

"I shall premise with a few general observations."' The 
preposition "with" should not be inserted between the transi- 
tive verb "premise" and its object "observations." Omit 
"with." " I shall premise a few general observations." 

"I lie me down to sleep." "Lie," an intransitive verb, 
should not have an object "me." Either change "lie" to 
"lay," or omit "me." "I lay me down to sleep," or "I lie 
down to sleep." 

EXEECISES. 

•Parse the Objectives which are the objects of verbs, in the 
following sentences, correcting where necessary : 

She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

The sailors, while exploring the island, found trees bearing 
delicious fruit. Having eaten a quantity of this fruit, and 
rested their weary limbs, they continued their journey. 

Devotion strengthens virtue. 

Let thou and I the battle try. 

We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. 

A good conscience fears nothing. 

Eepenting him of his design, he returned to his home. 

Application in early life will give ease in old age. 

He who committed the offence, thou shouldst punish, not I 
who am innocent. 
9* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is difficult to agree his conduct with the principles which 
he professes. 

Perseverance in labor will surmount every difficulty. 

Wrong acts he suffers with patience. 

If you prefer, you may take the apple. 

The child chased after the butterfly. 

" Chiefs, sages, heroes, bards, and seers, 
That live in story and in song, 
Time, for the last two thousand years, 
Has raised, and shown, and swept along." 

REVIEW. 

* Parse all the Nominatives in the foregoing sentences, and all 
the Verbs except those in the Infinitive mood. 

EULB IV. 
A Preposition governs the Objective Case. 

Explanation. — This means that a preposition requires its 
object, or the word which follows it to complete the sense, to be 
in the objective case. 

NOTES. 

1. Prepositions are generally placed before the word which 
they govern; as, "He came to town." 

2. That, when used as a relative pronoun, always precedes 
the preposition by which it is governed; as, "Every book that 
you have referred to, is mine." Here, " that" is governed by 
the preposition " to," and precedes it. If we were to use 
" which" here instead of " that," the arrangement would be 
different ; thus, " Every book to itihich you have referred, is 
mine." 

3. Whom and which sometimes precede the preposition ; as, 
"The person whom I travelled withy This mode of construc- 
tion is generally considered inelegant, especially where the 
preposition is separated some distance from the word which it 



SYNTAX 103 

governs. The sentence just quoted would read better thus: 
w The person with whom I travelled." 

4. The preposition and the. word governed by it, should be 
placed as near as possible to the preceding word to which they 
relate; as, ''He was reading in a low voice, when I entered/' 
instead of "He was reading, when I entered, in a low voice." 
The words " in a low voice/' relate to the act of " reading," 
and should not unnecessarily be separated from it. 

5. Sometimes, in law papers, and other documents of a 
formal nature, two prepositions govern jointly the same word; 
as, " He is related to, and governed by, the same person." Such 
constructions in other kinds of writing should be' avoided. The 
sentence may run thus: "He is related to the same person, and 
is governed by him." 

6. A still more objectionable mode of construction is, where 
the same word is governed jointly by a transitive verb and a 
preposition ; as, " He was warned of, and urged to avoid the 
danger/' It should be, " He was warned of the danger, and 
urged to avoid it." 

7. When a preposition is followed by an adjective without a 
noun, supply the noun, and parse the preposition accordingly ; 
as, "Keep to the right (hand)." 

8. The preposition is frequently omitted, particularly after 
verbs of giving and procuring; after adjectives of likeness or 
nearness; and before nouns denoting time, place, price, mea- 
sure, &c. Examples: Give (to) me a book. Get (for) me an 
apple. Like (to) his father. Near (to) his home. They tra- 
velled (through) sixty miles (in) a day. A wall (by?) six feet 
high. Subjects worthy (of) fame. Books worth (worthy of?) 
a dollar. (See Appendix 28, 29.) 

9. Formerly, the preposition for was used before the infini- 
tive mood ; as, " What went ye out for bo see?" This is not 
allowable now. 

10. Sometimes one preposition immediately precedes another ; 
as, "From before the altar." The two prepositions in such 
cases should be considered as one, just as in the case of the 
compound prepositions upon, within, &c. 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



11. Sometimes a preposition precedes an adverb; as, at once, 
for ever, &c. The two words should be taken together, as in 
the preceding case, and called an adverb. 

12. At and to. At is used after a verb of rest; as, "He 
resides at Madrid/'' To is used after a verb of motion ; as, 
" lie went to Spain/' 

13. Between and among. Between refers to two objects, among 
to more than two; as, "There is no difference of opinion be- 
tween the President and the Yice-President (two), although 
there is among the members of the Cabinet generally (more 
than two)." 

14. Words followed by appropriate prepositions. (See Ap- 
pendix 30.) 

Absent from. ("Attribute to (verb). 

Access to. \ Attribute of (noun). 

Accused of ( Diminish from (a verb). 

Acquit of \ Diminution of [a, noun). 

Adapt to. Betray to a person. 

Affection ybr. " into a thing. 

Alienate from. Call on a person. 

Alliance with. " at a house. 

Bestow upon. " for a thing. 

Comply witli. Confide to (transitive). 

Consonant with* " in (intransitive). 

Depend upon. Accord to (transitive). 

Dissent from. " with (intransitive). 

Made of Compare to (for illustration). 

Martyr for. " with (for quality). 

Need of Copy from nature. 

True to. " after a parent. 

J Agent charged with a thing. Defend others from. 

\ Thing charged on an agent. " ourselves against. 

( Avert from (verb). Die of a, disease. 

1 Averse io (adjective). " by a sword. 

Differ with a person in opinion. Beconcile a person to. 

" from him in character. a thing with. 

Agree with a person. Taste of (actual enjoyment). 

" loathing. " for (capacity for enjoying). 



SYNTAX. 105 

MODELS FOB PARSING. 

"James writes a letter to his father." "Father" is a com. 
noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. c., governed by 
the preposition " to," according to Rule IY. (Quote.) 

"To" is a preposition, showing the rejation between "writes," 
and "father," and governs "father" in the obj. c, according to 
Rule IY. (Quote.) 

" God seeth in secret" " In" is a preposition, showing the 
relation between "seeth" and "places," or some such noun 
understood. The meaning is, " God seeth in secret places." 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Prepositions, and the Nouns or Pronouns governed 
by them, in the following sentences, supplying omissions, and 
correcting the sentences, where necessary : 

Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue, and unfits a 
man for the duties of life. 

Between } t ou and I, he has no scholarship to boast of. 
. God, in whom I trust, will protect me. 

Confide to real friends only ; confide nothing in him who has 
once deceived you. 

If I compare my penmanship to yours, mine will suffer by 
the comparison. 

Newton, in order to show how little he had accomplished, 
compared himself with a child picking pebbles on the sea- 
shore. 

The Indian differs with the Caucasian in color. 

I differ from you on this point. 

Who did you receive that intelligence from? 

The book, which the story is printed in, is full of pictures. 

The delay in the printing renders the progress very slow of 
the work. 

Be}'Ond this period, the arts cannot be traced of civil society. 

He is unacquainted with, and cannot speak upon, that sub- 
ject. 

He dwelt upon, and strongly urged, your claims. 

I received, but had not time to reply to, your letter. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He told me for to do it. 

The book is like its author. 

The fountain is near the city. 

His mother bought him a top. 

The next day they set out early in the morning, and travelled 
twenty miles. ». ; 

His health he little thought of. 
B There is a room in the second story suitable for a single 
gentleman with a fire-place. 

He found a dog, belonging to an old lady, with a brass collar, 
having a ribbon attached. 

He was talking, while his class were quietly studying, in a 
loud voice, when- his teacher .entered, and chastised him, with 
noiseless steps. 

Who did you inquire of, at the house which you were sent to, 
and what did they complain of? 

He approved of and voted for this measure. 

I have noticed of late that the sky above and the earth 
beneath wear an appearance of gloom. 

I sought in vain for a cheerful spot, and at last gave up 
in despair. 

I hear a voice coming from below. 

From within, a foul stench arose; but from without, the 
sepulchre was fair and comely. 

I will take her for better, for worse. 

He addresses himself to the loyal. 

Though he was a child only five years old, he showed grown 
men an example worthy their imitation. 

Next her brother, stood a little girl, who asked the boy oppo- 
site her place, to lend her his book, but he churlishly refused 
her this simple request. 

It was two degrees below zero. 

He was sent home two weeks sooner than the usual time. 

Among a brother and a sister no strife should arise. 

Between the many religious sects he was unable to find one 
suited to his notions of religion. 

The army will remain in Washington for a day and then 
march at the nearest point of attack. 



SYNTAX. 107 

He divided his estate between his wife, his son, and his 
daughter. 

His actions do not accord to his preaching ; we cannot accord 
our support with him. 

It was difficult to reconcile the mother with the loss of her 
child ; she could not reconcile such an affliction to the goodness 
of God. 

REVIEW. 

Parse all the objects of Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 
Parse all the Verbs (except those in the infinitive), and all 
the Nominatives, and Possessives. 

BITLE V. 

A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive 
Case is governed by the Noun signifying the 
thing possessed. 

NOTES. 

1. The possessive case is not the only way in which the idea 
of possession may be expressed. A very common mode of 
expressing this idea is by using the preposition of. Thus, 
" The house of my father," and "My father's house," express 
equally the idea of property. In substituting one of these 
modes of expression for the other, care should be taken to see 
that the two expressions mean the same thing. In the expres- 
sion, " The House of Representatives," "of" does not convey 
the idea of possession, but of composition. It means the House 
or Assembly composed of Representatives. 

2. The governing noun is often omitted; as, "I bought this 
slate at the bookseller's [shop]." In such cases, supply the 
omission, and parse according to the general rule. 

3. In consequence of ellipsis, there is sometimes an appear- 
ance of a double possessive ; as, " This is a speech of the king's 
[speeches]." Here, "of" does not denote possession. The 
meaning is, " This speech is one of the king's speeches." In all 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

such instances, the preposition governs the noun understood, 
and the noun understood governs the possessive. 

4. The two modes of expression, "A picture of the king/ 7 
and "A picture of the king's," never mean the same thing. 
The noun understood in the latter case is always plural, and the 
idea is always that of possession. The phrase "A picture of 
the king's," implies that this is one out of many pictures, and 
that they belong to the king. But, in the phrase "A picture 
of the king," no intimation is given of a plurality of pictures, 
and the idea of possession is not necessarily, if ever, conveyed. 

5. In complex names, the sign of the possessive is put only 
at the end, and the whole complex name is parsed as one 
word. Thus, " George Washington's farewell address," not 
"George's Washington's," &c. 

6. A complex title sometimes consists of several words, some 
of which may be different parts of speech, and may have an 
independent construction of their own ; thus, " The captain of 
the guard's horse was slain." In parsing such a sentence, 
"of the guard" should be parsed first, separately, "guard" being 
in the objective. Then, "captain of the guard's" is parsed as 
one complex name, in the possessive case, governed by "horse." 
The 's belongs not to " guard," but to the whole expression. 
These complex titles are sometimes written with a hyphen, as, 
" commander-in-chief." Where complex titles are used, the 
idea of possession may be conveyed by using "of," "belonging 
to," or something similar. This mode of expression in such 
cases is generally to be preferred to the use of 's. Thus, " The 
horse belonging to the captain of the guard was slain." 

7. When two or more nouns are connected in the possessive, 
expressing joint possession, the sign of the possessive should be 
put only after the last ; as, " The king and queen's marriage." 
" King" here is to be parsed as the possessive, with the sign of 
the possessive omitted. If, however, several words intervene 
between the nouns so connected, the sign should not be omitted; 
as, "It was my father's, and also my brother's wish." 

8. The sign of the possessive should not be omitted when 
separate, instead of joint possession is expressed; as, "Wash- 
ington's and Cornwallis's troops approached each other." 



SYNTAX. 109 

9. "When a noun in the possessive has one or more other 
nouns in apposition, the sign of the possessive is often omitted 
after the latter, especially if there is more than one of them, or 
if the governing noun is omitted ; as, " At Smith's, the book- 
seller and stationer/' " Bookseller" and " stationer," here, 
should be parsed as in the possessive, with the sign of the 
possessive omitted. 

10. In like manner, the sign of the possessive may be omitted 
after a noun in apposition with a pronoun in the possessive; as, 
"Here lies his head, a youth to fortune and to fame unknown." 
"Youth," here, is in the possessive (the sign being omitted), 
and is in apposition with "his." The meaning is, "The head 
of him, a youth," &c. 

11. Care should be taken not to separate the possessive from 
the governing word by inserting explanatory clauses ; as, " She 
extolled the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understand- 
ing." In such cases, the idea of possession should be by "of," 
or in some similar way. Thus, " She extolled the excellent 
understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

12. Certain compound pronouns in the possessive case are 
sometimes separated ; as, " Whose house soever J' This, how- 
ever, is to be generally avoided. 

13. The possessive is sometimes governed by a participle 
used as a noun; as, "The cause of John's forgetting the lesson 
was his anxiety about the excursion." Here, "John's" is in 
the possessive case, governed by "forgetting" used as a noun. 
It would not be correct to put "John" in the objective case 
governed by "of." "Of," here, governs "forgetting," not 
"John." "The cause of John forgetting the lesson," should 
be, " The cause of John's forgetting the lesson." " The cause of 
him not doing it," should be, " The cause of his not doing it." 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

"James writes a letter bjhh father's permission." "Father's" 
is a com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the poss. c, 
governed by "permission," according to Eule V. (Quote.) 
10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"George Washington's Farewell Address has just been read." 
" George Washington's," a complex name, is a prop, noun, 
masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., poss. c, governed by "Address," 
according to Rule V. (Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

• Parse all the Nouns and Pronouns in the possessive case, in 
the following sentences, correcting the sentences, and supply- 
ing ellipses, wherever necessary : 

A man's manners often make his fortune. 

Asa's heart was perfect in the Lord's sight. 

Helen's beauty caused the destruction of Troy. 

The Representatives' House adjourned on the fifth of June. 

The Lord's day will come as a thief in the night. 

This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. 

The bishop of New York's letter was published in the daily 
papers. 

William and Mary's reign was one of the most distinguished 
in English history. 

John and Mary's book case is filled partly with his books, 
and partly with hers. 

John's and Mary's book cases are both filled with books. 

William and Lucy's cloaks were lost. 

The Princeton and the Raritan's crews are now both com- 
plete. 

If he learn any trade, it should be his father's. 

He was tried at the magistrate's for stealing a parcel of rings 
at the jeweller's. 

The painting of Christ Healing the Sick is a picture of West. 

There are many pictures of Washington's on tavern signs. 

The farewell address of Washington's was read on the anni- 
versary of his death. 

It was the Sergeant-at-arms's duty to execute the Speaker of 
the House of Representatives' order. 

The Archbishop of Canterbury's opinion was preferred to the 
Archbishop of York's. 

Men and women's shoes are made very differently. 



SYNTAX. Ill 

The captain and the lieutenant's sword were much alike in 
appearance. 

Scott's and Butler's store was destroyed by the fire, and all 
the goods belonging to the firm were burned. 

No one ever doubted Mad Anthony's, as he was called, 
bravery and skill. 

The necessity of the general obtaining supplies was obvious. 

REVIEW. 

Parse all the Nominatives in the foregoing sentences. 
Parse the objects of all the Verbs and Prepositions. . 
Parse all the Prepositions. 
Parse all the Verbs, except those in the infinitive niood. 

EULE VI. 

A Noun or a Pronoun, put in Apposition 
with another; agrees with it in case. 

NOTES. 

1. The words in apposition may be in any case, nominative, 
possessive, or objective. 

2. When a word is in apposition with another in the posses- 
sive case, the sign of the possessive is sometimes omitted. 

" This is the wandering wood, this Error's den, 
A monster vile, whom God and man do hate." 

"Monster," here, is in the possessive case, the sign of the pos- 
sessive being omitted, and is in apposition with "Error's." 

3. A noun may be put in apposition to a whole sentence; as, 
" He promptly acceded to my request, an act which redounds 
greatly to his honor." "Act" is here nominative, in apposition 
with the whole of the preceding sentence. 

4. When several words form one proper name, as "Thomas 
Jefferson," these words are in apposition, but they should be 
parsed together as one complex noun. In forming the plural, 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or the possessive, of such complex names, the sign should be 
put only at the end ; as, "The country has not had two Thomas 
Jeffersons;" "Thomas Jefferson's works." 

5. When a proper name has a title prefixed, as, "General 
Greene," "Dr. Rush," "Mr. Stockton," the words are in appo- 
sition, but they should be parsed together as one complex noun. 

6. In forming the plural of complex names, consisting of a 
proper noun and a title, if the article and a numeral adjective 
are prefixed, the last word only should be plural; as, "The two 
Mr. Stocktons J 7 But when a numeral is not prefixed, the title 
only should be plural; as, "The Messrs. Stockton," "The 
Misses Stockton." 

7. One, of the most frequent instances of apposition, is where 
the proper name of an object is appended to its common name ; 
as, " The river Delaware." It is a peculiarity of the English 
language that the proper names of places, when so appended, 
are not in apposition, but are put in the objective and governed 
by "of;" as, "The city of Philadelphia." 

8. The phrases " They love one another," " They love each 
other," &c, afford instances of apposition that very frequently 
occur. In these examples, "one" and "each" are in apposition 
with "they;" and "another" and "other" are in the objective, 
governed by "love." The meaning is, "One loves another," 
"Each loves the other." 

9. The verb to be has the same case after it as before it. 
This rule applies also to many other intransitive verbs, and 
likewise to the passive voice of some transitive verbs; as, to 
become, to be named, to be called, &c. The noun or pronoun 
after the verb in such cases is in apposition with the one before 
it, and should be so parsed. Examples: "Cicero was an 
orator," " Mr. Thomas ranks as captain," "Paul is called the 
apostle to the gentiles." 

10. The verb to be in the infinitive mood used as a noun, may ' 
have a noun or a pronoun after it without any other noun 
before it; as, "To be a good man, is not so easy a thing as 
many people imagine." Here, " man" should be parsed as 
used indefinitely after the verb to be, without saying what its 
case is. This rule applies also to the infinitive mood of many 



SYNTAX. 113 

other intransitive verbs, and likewise to the passive voice of 
some transitive verbs ; as, " To live a consistent Christian, is 
not easy," " To be called a Romany was counted a great honor." 
(See Appendix 31.) 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"James writes a letter to his brother John." "John" is a 
prop, noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., obj. c, in apposition with 
the noun "brother," according to Rule YI. (Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Xouns and Pronouns in Apposition in the follow- 
ing sentences, correcting where necessary : 

Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm. 

Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, lies on the bank of 
the Susquehanna. 

Thomson, the author of the seasons, is a delightful poet. 

The knife was given to me by my brother James, he that was 
here last week. 

Mr. Dale, the carpenter, him whom you saw here yesterday, 
is dead. 

Godliness with contentment are great gain. 

The Senate caused Sylla to be proclaimed Dictator. 

The hare is beset by death in various forms, snares, dogs, 
and the hunter's gun. 

Education, the great civilizer, is the best safeguard of that 
blood-bought blessing, liberty. 

I met a fool, a crazy fool, in the streets, selling pictures, the 
works of his own idle fancy. 

This is Arnold's grave, that vile traitor who sold his country 
for money. 

They destroyed the vessel and returned without losing a 
single man, an exploit which was highly creditable. 

He was playing ball, an amusement of which boys are very 
fond. 

We Americans call England our mother country. 
10* H 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

•There are eight Kings Henry in English history. 

I have two aunts Mary. 

Wine has been his ruin. He entered manhood a pattern of 
sobriety, but died a miserable sot. 

When I reign king, thou shalt be my slave. 

Solomon is counted the wisest man of all ages. 

The carriage was returned a perfect wreck. 

To die a Christian is more desirable than to reign king. 

To live a coward accords better with some persons' inclina- 
tion, than to leave the world a hero. 

REVIEW. 

Parse all the Nominatives in the foregoing exercises. 
Parse all the Possessives. 

Parse the objects of all the Verbs and Prepositions. 
Parse all the Verbs and Prepositions. 

KTTLE VII. 
A Pronoun agrees with the Noun for which 

IT STANDS IN GENDER, NUMBER, AND PERSON. 

NOTES. 

1. When a pronoun stands for a Collective noun, in the sin- 
gular, the pronoun should be plural if the idea expressed by 
the noun is plural ; as, " Send the multitude away that they 
may buy themselves bread." But if the idea expressed by the 
noun is singular, the pronoun should be singular, and should 
be in the neuter gender. " The class is too large; it must be 
divided into sections." 

2. When a pronoun stands for two or- more words, con- 
nected by and, the pronoun should be plural. Thus, "William 
and Mary were both there; I saw them" "He and Mary were 
both there; I saw them" "He and she were both there; I 
saw them." " Them" in the first example stands for two nouns, 
in the second example for a noun and a pronoun, and in the 
third for two pronouns. 



SYNTAX. 115 

3. When a pronoun stands for two or more words of different 
genders, the gender of the pronoun is" indeterminate, and must 
be omitted in parsing ; as, " I saw the man and his portrait 
side by side, and I could hardly tell them apart, so great was 
the likeness/ 7 Here, "them" stands for "man" (masc.) and 
"portrait" (neuter); the gender of "them" therefore cannot 
be determined. 

4. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, connected 
by and, but used to express only one subject, the pronoun should 
be singular. Thus, " He knew his Lord and Saviour, and 
loved Mm" 

5. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, in the 
singular, connected by or or nor, the pronoun should be singular. 
Thus, "Either play or work is injurious, if it is carried to 
excess." 

6. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, of dif- 
ferent persons, connected by and, the pronoun agrees with the 
first person rather than the second, and with the second rather 
than the third. Thus, "William and I had our skates with 
us." "Our" and "us" are plural, according to Note 2, because 
they stand for two subjects, "William" and " I." But one of 
these subjects, " William," being in the third person, and the 
other, " I," being in the first person, the pronoun which stands 
for both must be in the first person. We would not express 
the meaning, if we were to say, " William and I had their 
skates with them." 

7. Words of different genders or persons, connected by or or 
nor, cannot be correctly represented by a single pronoun. 

Thus, "Mary or William has lost book." We cannot 

supply the blank with her, his, or ilieir. Again, " I or thou 

hast lost book." We cannot supply the blank with my, 

thy, or our. 

8. A pronoun may stand for an infinitive mood ; as, " To 
contradict an aged person may be rude, but it is not criminal." 
A pronoun may stand also for a part of a sentence ; as, " He is 
very witty, but unfortunately he is aware of it" The pronoun 
in such cases should be in the third person, neuter gender, and 
singular number. But if there are two or more infinitives, or 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

clauses, making distinct subjects, then the pronoun should be 
plural ; as, " To be temperate, and to use exercise in the open 
air, are good preservatives of health, but they are not infal- 
lible." 

9. The pronoun It is sometimes used indefinitely, that is, 
without standing for any particular noun. Thus, " Come and 
trip it as you go," "It rains," "It was he that did it," &c. 
(p. 37, art. 165). 

10. The gender of a noun is sometimes changed by personi- 
fication (p. 23, note 5). In such instances, a similar change 
occurs in the gender of the pronoun; as, "The ship has lost her 
anchor." 

11. We frequently, and you generally, are used to represent 
the singular (p. 36, art. 161, 162). It is improper in such cases 
to change the construction during the progress of a sentence; 
as, " Thou wast true to me in the day of trouble, and your kind- 
ness I can never forget." It should be either "thou". and 
"thy," or "you" and "your." 

12. Who is used in referring to persons ; "Which is used in 
referring to inferior animals, to things without life, to infants, 
to collective nouns where unity of idea is expressed, and to 
persons in asking questions where the particular individual is 
inquired for. " Which" was formerly applied to persons as 
well as things ; as, "Our Father, which art in heaven." 

13. That is used instead of Yy'ho or W^hich in the following 
cases : 

1. After the Superlative ; as, " It is the best book that can 
be got." 

2. After Same; as, "He is the same kind-hearted man that 
he used to be." 

3. After All, or any similar antecedent expressing a general 
meaning, limited by the following verb; as, " All that heard me 
can testify." 

4. After Who ; as, " Who, that has seen anything of human 
nature, can believe it?" 

5. After It, used indefinitely; as, "It was he that did it." 

6. After two antecedents, one requiring who, and the other 



SYNTAX. 117 

requiring which; as, "The man and the house thai we saw 
yesterday." 

14. When the relative has two antecedents, of different per^ 
sons, one before and the other after the verb to be, the relative 
agrees in person with the nearest; as, "I am the man who 
commands yon." Where a different meaning is intended, the 
relative should be placed nearer the first antecedent; as, "I who 
command you, am a man." 

15. The relative should be placed near its antecedent to 
prevent ambiguity; thus, "The boy broke his slate, whom 
everybody believed incapable of doing mischief," should be, 
" The boy, whom everybody believed incapable of doing mis- 
chief, broke his slate." 

16. The relative is sometimes omitted ; as, "The letter [which] 
you wrote me on Saturday, came duly to hand." This is allow- 
able only in colloquial language. 

17. The antecedent is sometimes omitted; as, " [The person] 
who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 

18. What is sometimes apparently used as an adverb, but in 
all such cases the ellipsis can be supplied ; as, "What doth it 
profit a man ?" that is, " [In] what [respect] doth it profit a 
man?" 

19. What should not be used for the conjunction that. Thus, 
" 1 don't know but what I shall go," should be, " I don't know 
but that I shall go." 

20. Whichsoever, whatsoever, &c, are sometimes written as 
two words with other words intervening; as, "which side soever" 
In parsing, the two parts of the word should be taken together 
as one word. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

"John, who was at school, wrote a letter to his father." 
" Who" is a rel. pron., 3d p., sing, n., masc. g., to agree with 
"John," according to Rule VII. (Quote), and is in the nom. c. 
to "was," according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

"It" (in the second example under Note 1) is a pers. pron., 
3d p., and in the sing, n., n. g., to agree with "class," a collec- 
tive noun expressing unity of idea, according to Rule VII., 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 1 (Quote Note), and is in the nom. c. to "must be divided/ 7 
according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

' " Us" (in the example, Note 6) is a pers. pron., standing for 
"William" and "I," two words of different persons; it is there- 
fore in the 1st p., according to Note 6, Rule VII. (Quote Note), 
pi. n., according to Note 2, Rule VII. (Quote Note), and obj. c, 
governed by the preposition "with," according to Rule IV. 
(Quote.) 

" That" (in the last example, Note 13) is a rel. pron., ^elating 
to the two antecedents, "man" and "house," and used instead 
of "who" or "which," according to Note 13, Rule VII. (Quote 
Note), pi. n., according to Note 2, Rule VII. (Quote Note), and 
obj. c, governed by the verb "saw," according to Rule III. 
(Quote.) 

" He reads what is written." "What" is a compound rela- 
tive, including both antecedent and relative (that — which), in 
the 3d p., sing, n., n. g. As antecedent, it is in the obj. c, and 
governed by "reads," according to Rule III. (Quote.) As" 
relative, it is in the nom. c. to "is written," according to Rule I. 
(Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse all the Pronouns in the following sentences, correcting 
and supplying omissions where necessary : 

He only who is active and industrious, can experience real 
pleasure. x 

He who is a stranger to industry, may possess wealth, but he 
cannot enjoy it. 

Trust not him whose friendship is bought with gold. 

The boys replied to the general, "We come to you to com- 
plain of your soldiers ; they have destroyed our play ground. 
We requested them not to disturb it, but they called us rebels." 

The multitude seek pleasure as its chief good. 

The Board of School Controllers have just published its 
annual report. 

If your rudeness and noise continue, it will effectually hinder 
you from gaining any benefit. 

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. 



SYNTAX. 119 

The army was eating its dinner, when it was surprised. 

The family of Adam include the whole human race; you 
and I are a part of them. 

The silent circle fans itself in doors, while the coachman 
without is famished with cold. 

It appears to have been John and James who were guilty. 

What is it that vexes you ? 

The moon shed her pale light over the landscape. 

Lay up in thy heart what you have now heard. 

Do unto others, as thou wouldst have others do unto you. 

[Supply relatives before parsing.] The ship I saw had 

a cargo was very valuable ; its captain was a man 

every member of the crew obeyed, though was composed 

of men of the worst character. 

Who, who ever had a man or a beast, which served him 
faithfully, would say, it is they who should thank me ; I have 
nothing for which to feel grateful. 

Solomon was the wisest man whom the world ever saw. 

It is the same picture which you saw before. 

All which beauty, all which Avealth e'er gave. 

Who, who has any sense of religion, will argue thus? 

The lady and the lapdog which we saw in the window. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who 
had never before been guilty of so unjust an action. 

The tiger is a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 

This is the friend which I love. 

That is the vice whom I hate. 

The infant whom you see in the cradle is sick. 

Who of those men came to his assistance ? 

Thou art the man who has done the crime, and I who suffers 
the penalty, am innocent. 

Thou hast been a spectator who hast applauded. 

Take that book to the library, which I left on my table. 

There was a bird caught by the fox, which was web-footed. 

The criminal was hung by the sheriff, who committed this 
shocking murder. 

That. officer was selected to arrest the thief, in whom the 
Mayor placed the utmost confidence. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This soldier was never rewarded by his captain, who was the 
"bravest private in his company, because he differed with him in 
politics. 

[Supply relative before parsing.] The house I live in and 
the furniture it contains are the products of the industry of the 
many toilsome hours I spent in active business. 

[Supply antecedent.] Who tempers the wind to the shorn 
lamb, will take care of me. 

Whom I respect I obey, not those I have no confidence in. 

[Insert proper pronouns in dotted spaces, and verbs in the 
other.] 

The school composed of both sexes ; . . . been 

divided into two departments. 

The Cabinet divided in . . . opinion. 

The legislature — . . . meetings at Harrisburg; my 

brother is a member of . . . 

He had experienced hunger and thirst, and therefore knew 
what it was without a description. 

Every officer and every soldier were at their post. 

Why should dust and ashes exhibit their pride, or flesh and 
blood glory in their strength ? 

Either my father, or any other man could have had the right 
to express their opinions. 

Hunger or thirst I can bear; they give pain to the body; but 
the pangs of a guilty conscience I cannot bear. 

She or Mary must have left their candle burning. 

EULE Till. 

An Article belongs to the Noun which it 
qualifies or points out. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun to which the article belongs is often understood. 
In that case, supply the noun, and parse the article according 
to the Rule, as belonging to the noun thus supplied. Thus, 



SYNTAX. 121 

"Turn neither to the right [hand], nor to the left [hand]." 
** Henry the Eighth [king of that name] was then reigning." 

2. An adjective preceding the noun, must come between it 
and the article ; as, "a virtuous man," not "virtuous a man." 
Except all, such, many, what, both, and adjectives preceded by 
too, so, as, how; as, " all the men," " such a sight," " too serious 
an undertaking," &c. 

3. When two or more adjectives connected belong to the 
same subject, the article is used only before the first; as," a red 
and white flag," i. e., one flag, partly red and partly white. 
But, when the adjectives belong to different subjects, the article 
is repeated before each ; as, " a red, and a white flag," i. e. f two 
flags, one red, and one white. 

4. In using the comparative with than, if the nouns before 
and after " than" both refer to the same subject, the article 
should be used only before the first ; as, " He is a better speaker 
than writer ;" but, if the nouns refer to different subjects, the 
article should be repeated before both; as, "A man makes a 
better soldier than a woman." 

5. A or an is joined to nouns in the singular number only ; 
as, "a man." The exceptions to this are apparent rather than 
real. Thus, " a few things," means a certain number of things, 
and not more ; " a thousand men" means one thousand of men, 
and not two thousand, &c. The a should be parsed as belong- 
ing to the words "few," "thousand," &c, used as nouns in the 
singular, and the word following governed by of understood. 

6. A marked difference of meaning is produced by the use or 
omission of a before few and little. " He has a little decency," 
means he has at least some. " He has little decency," intimates 
a doubt whether he has any. 

7. A or an has sometimes the meaning of every ; as, "twice 
a day." Such sentences are always elliptical, in or some other 
preposition being understood ; as, " Twice [in] a day." 

8. A is often an abbreviation for some other short word, at, 
in, on, &c. (p. 79, art. 283) ; as, " His greatness is a ripening." 
In such cases it is not an article but a preposition, and is to be 
parsed accordingly. 

11 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. The is used before comparatives and superlatives. Where 5 
these comparatives and superlatives are adjectives, the noun to 
which the article belongs can easily be supplied. "An estate, 
the largest in the city." But in the case of adverbs there does 
not seem to be any ellipsis of the noun ; as, " The more care- 
fully you examine the book, the better you will like it." The 
article seems to qualify the adverb and belong to it. 

10. The is used before the antecedent of a restrictive clause ; 

as, " The men, who ivere absent, neglected their duty." 

f 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

" James writes a letter." " A" is the ind. art., and belongs 
to the noun "letter," according to Rule VIII. (Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Articles in the following sentences, supplying 
omissions, and correcting where necessary : 

At first the enemy gave way, but afterward he repulsed the 
left of our line. * 

Time destroys both the great and the small. 

Glory to God in the highest. 

A too severe discipline is tyranny. 

The banner of the United States is a red, a white, and a blue 
flag. 

Fire is a better servant than a master. 

He is a better poet than a historian. 

A rosy faced and pale girl were seen on the right of the 
room. 

Truth is a mightier weapon than sword. 

Disease is a greater destroyer than earthquake. 

Mr. C. having tried the stage and pulpit, was found to be a 
better minister than an actor. 

He had a few pupils, who came twice a week to receive his 
lessons. They preferred this to going a hunting. 

The louder he spoke, the less he was heard, and the noise 
made by the audience became the greater. 

He who uses filthy language has a little decency. 



SYNTAX. 123 

He who merely is ashamed of soiled clothes, shows thereby 
that he has little decency. 

He was such a t} T rant that a few persons mourned at his 
death. 

As everybody knew him to be a thief, a few persons intrusted 
their goods to him. 

REVIEW. 

Parse all the Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in 
the foregoing sentences. 



EULE IX. 

An Adjective belongs to the Noun or the 
Pronoun which it qualifies. 

notes. 

1. The noun to which the adjective belongs is sometimes 
omitted ; as; " Of two evils, choose the least . . . ." In that 
case, supply the omission, and parse the adjective according to 
the Rule, as belonging to the noun thus supplied. 

2. An adjective sometimes qualifies an infinitive mood, or a 
part of a sentence, used as a noun ; as, " To use profane lan- 
guage is both foolish and wicked." In such cases the adjective 
should be parsed as belonging to the infinitive mood, or the 
part of a sentence. 

3. The infinitive mood and the participle are sometimes found 
with an adjective after them not qualifying any particular noun, 
that is, used indefinitely ; as, " To be good is the surest way of 
being happy." " Good/' here, is to be parsed by saying that 
it is an adjective used indefinitely after the -infinitive. In like 
manner, "happy" is used indefinitely after the participle. 

4. When an adjective expresses any number (more than one), 
the noun or pronoun to which it belongs must be plural ; as, 
"ten pounds," not "ten pound." Some nouns, however, have a 
plural meaning with a singular form ; as, " Ten sail of the line." 
In such instances the plural form of the noun is not required. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. When two adjectives precede a noun, both expressing 
number, one of them may express the idea of unity, the other 
that of plurality; as, "one hundred men," "the first hundred 
lines," &c. In these instances, the several things are considered 
in their aggregate capacity, as forming one whole. The rule 
of construction is, to make the noun plural, and put the singular 
adjective before the plural one : as, " the first hundred lines," 
not "the hundred first lines." 

6. Many, is sometimes used before the singular with a pre- 
fixed ; as, "many a flower." 

7. The comparative degree generally refers to two objects, 
the superlative to two or more; as, "John is the taller of the 
two," "John is the tallest of the whole six." 

8. The comparative considers the objects compared as belong- 
ing to different classes; as, "Eve was fairer than any of her 
daughters.'' 7 The superlative considers the objects as belonging 
to one class ; as, " Eve was the fairest of women." 

9. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper. Thus, 
" A worser man," should be, " A worse man ;" " The most 
politest boy," should be, " The politest boy." 

10. Some adjectives (p. 34, art. 153) express a quality inca- 
pable of increase or diminution ; as, chief, extreme, universal, &c. 
In such cases, the comparative and superlative terminations 
should not be used. 

11. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs, that is, to 
qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. "He speaks cor- 
rect," should be, "lie speaks correctly;" "A sufficient long 
time," should be, " A sufficiently long time ;" " He came re- 
markable soon," should be, " He came remarkably soon." 

12. Sometimes the adjective seems to qualify a verb; as, 
" The egg is boiled hard," " The apple tastes sweet," " The 
board looks smooth, but it is rough." In these cases, as the 
verb connects the quality with the preceding noun or pronoun, 
the word is an adjective, and it should be so parsed. 

13. In poetry, an adjective is sometimes used in the sense of 
an adverb ; as, " Slow rises merit when by poverty oppressed." 
In these cases, the word is an adverb, and should be so parsed. 



SYNTAX. 125 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"James writes a long. letter." "Long" is an adj., in the 
pos. deg. (" long, longer, longest,"), and belongs to "letter," 
which it qualifies or describes, according to Rule IX. (Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Adjectives in the following sentences, supplying 
omissions, and correcting where necessary: 

A great reward has been offered for the detection of the 
criminal. 

The best men are liable to occasional infirmities of temper. 

To repine at the prosperity of others is despicable. 

To be ever active in laudable pursuits is highly meritorious. 

There are six foot of water in the hold. 

The three last verses. 

Chimborazo is the highest mountain of Europe. 

Spain at one time possessed a greater commerce than any 
nation in Europe. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster, the 
lesser weight it carries. 

Sing the three first and the last stanzas of the hymn. 

There is no more universal sentiment than this. 

Virtue confers the supremesfc dignity on man. 

He writes elegant. She sings sweet. 

To drink wine to excess is destructive of health. 

To practise virtue is more acceptable to God than the sacri- 
fice of bullocks or rams. 

To be wise to-day is the way to commence to be wise. 

To remain ignorant in a land like ours is inexcusable. 

The evil that men do lives after them ; the good is often 
buried with them. 

The vain, the wealthy, and the proud, are not the proper 
persons to be imitated. 

" Then give Humility a coach and six." 

That style of dress is more admired by some than this. Let 
each lady indulge their own taste. 
11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR." 

Those who go to war must expect to suffer many privations ; 
some will die, and others lose their limbs. 

Ever} r station in life has its cares. 

The hay is sufficient for ten heads of norses, allowing twenty 
pound to each horse. 

The ten first men marched by two. 

The smallest of her twins seemed the more intelligent of her 
six children ; Samuel was the strongest of all his brothers, and 
Mary the neatest of the other members of the family. 

You should hold your body more perpendicular, and your 
feet wider apart, giving your body a more pyramidal form. 

The most adamantine Avails are but weak defences against 
the wrath of a most omnipotent God. 

Consumption is the most destructive of the other diseases, 
and more common than any disease in the United States. 

REVIEW. 

Parse the Articles, Nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in the 
foregoing sentences. 

EULE X. 

An Adjective Pronoun" belongs to the Noun 
or the Pronoun which it qualifies or points 
out. 

NOTES. 

1. The Distributives and Demonstratives agree in number 
with the nouns to which they belong ; as, "This sort of per- 
sons," not "Those sort." The distributives, each, every, either, 
neither, are all singular. Of the demonstratives, this and that 
are singular, these and those plural. 

2. The personal pronoun should not be used for the adjective 
pronoun ; as, " those books," not " them books." 

3. Either is sometimes used improperly for each; as, " Nadab 
and Abihu took either of them his censer." Grammatically, 
this means that only one of them took a censer, whereas the 



SYNTAX. • 127 

meaning intended is that they both did so. It should he 
" each." 

4. The noun is often understood after adjective pronouns. 
In such cases, supply the noun, and parse as usual; as, " Let 
each .... do his duty." 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"James wrote this letter." "This" is a dem. adj. pron., 
belonging to "letter," according to Rule X. (Quote), and is 
in the singular number, to agree with " letter," according to 
Note 1, Rule X. (Quote.) 

(N. B. — In parsing any other adjective pronoun, except the 
distributives and indefinites, the last part of the Model must be 
omitted.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Adjective Pronouns in the following sentences, 
supplying omissions, and correcting where necessary : 

Those men only are great, who are good. 

Those men who despise the admonitions of their friends, 
deserve the evils which their own obstinacy brings upon them. 

Those sort of people fear nothing. 

"Who broke this scissors? 

He adhered strictly to his profession, and by those means 
gained success. 

Virtue and vice are as opposite to each other as light and 
darkness ; this ennobles the mind, that debases it. 

Them kind of favors did real injury. 

The king of Israel and the king of Judah sat either of them 
on his throne. 

Such as are diligent will be rewarded. 

Some are naturally timid, others are bold and active. 

Give to each his own. 

This oats is of those species called wild oats. 

These sort of vegetable productions are considered mere 
weeds. 

In the Bible, tares and wheat are used to represent mankind; 
that, to denote the good, and this, the bad. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Either of them Siamese twins are so joined to the other at 
the breast that one cannot move without the other. 

Either side of that square field is of the same length as the 
three others. 

Some whom I considered my enemies, assisted, while none 
really pitied me ; each one who rendered me assistance, did so 
because their conscience, and not their love for me, prompted 
them. 

REVIEW. 

Parse all the other Pronouns, Nouns, Adjectives, Articles, 
and Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 



EULE XI. 

A Participle belongs to the Noun or the 
Pronoun which it qualifies. 

notes. 

1. The participle is often used as a noun, both in the nomi- 
native case and in the objective; as, "Writing letters is easier 
than writing compositions" (nom.) ; "In writing letters he 
soon became expert" (obj.). In these instances, the participle, 
as a part of the verb, retains its government of the objective. 
(See Appendix 32.) 

2. The participle used as a noun, is frequently found govern- 
ing another noun in the possessive case ; as, " Much depends 
on John's writing his letters rapidly." 

3. The participle is sometimes used as a noun merely ; as, 
" Avoid foolish talking and jesting. 11 When so used, parse the 
word simply as a noun in the third person, neuter gender. 

4. The participle is sometimes used simply as an adjective; 
as, " Singing birds abound in summer," " He is a learned 
man." When a participle is so used, call it a participial adjec- 
tive, and parse it as any other adjective. 

5. When a participial noun has an article before it, it should 
have "of" after it; as, " The learning of Greek," not "The 



SYNTAX. 129 

learning Greek." In such sentences, the article and the prepo- 
sition should either both be used, or both omitted. The latter 
is by far the most common. 

G. When the article and the preposition are both used in 
connection with a participial noun, the meaning is generally 
the same as when they are both omitted. Thus, " The learning 
of languages," means the same as " learning languages." 
This, however, is not always the case; as, "He confessed the 
whole in the hearing of three witnesses," " The court spent an 
hour in hearing the witnesses." It is perhaps impossible to 
give a rule which shall direct in all cases when to use, and when 
to omit the article and the preposition. 

7. The participles of the verb to be may have a noun or a 
pronoun after them in apposition with the one before them ; 
as, " Thomas, being an apt scholar, won the favor of his 
teacher." This rule applies also to the participles of many 
other intransitive verbs, and likewise to the participles of the 
passive voice of some transitive verbs ; as, " Solomon, while 
reigning king, built the temple," "Washington, being appointed 
commander-in-chief proceeded at once to Cambridge." 

8. The participles of the verb to be, when used as participial 
nouns, may have a noun after them used indefinitely : as, "Ills 
being a good penman soon gained him emplo}'ment." Here, 
"penman" is not nominative to "gained," nor is it in appo- 
sition with anything understood before " being," but must be 
parsed as used indefinitely after the participle " being." This 
rule applies also to the participles of many other intransi- 
tive verbs, and likewise to the participles of the passive voice 
of some transitive verbs ; as, " Living a consistent Christian, 
is not easy," " Being called a Roman, was counted a great 
honor." 

9. A participle may be used indefinitely after the infinitive 
of the verb to be, used as a noun ; as, " To be for ever in one 
place, doing nothing, would be intolerable." " Doing," here, 
belongs to no noun, that is, it is used indefinitely. This rule 
applies also to participles after the infinitive mood of many 
other intransitive verbs, and likewise of some transitive verbs 

I 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in the passive voice ; as, " To remain doing nothing, would be 
intolerable," " To be found stealing, is a disgrace." 

10. When the noun to which a participle belongs is in the 
nominative absolute, this fact should always be mentioned in 
parsing the participle. 

11. Care should be taken not to confound the past tense and 
the perfect participle ; as, " He began to write," not " He begun 
to write;" ''He did it," not "He done it;" "He saw it," not 
"He seen it," &c. 

12. Care should be taken not to use the past tense instead 
of the perfect participle after the auxiliaries to have and to be; 
as, " He has gone home," not " He has went home ;" " It was 
written" not " It was wrote" 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"James, having written a letter, sent it to the Post-office;" 
"Having written" is a comp. perf. part., act. v., of the irr. trans, 
verb "to write" (write, wrote, written), and belongs to "James," 
according to Rule XI. (Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Participles in the following sentences, correcting 
where necessary : 

Knowledge, softened by good breeding, makes a man be- 
loved and admired. 

Having finished his speech, he descended from the platform. 

The youthful poet, while walking alone in the woods, fell 
into a reverie. 

Precept has little influence, if not enforced by example. 

True honor, as defined by Cicero, is the concurrent approba- 
tion of good men. 

Much depends on the pupil observing the rules. 

What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so 
hastily ? 

I remember it being done. 

The learning anything speedily requires great application. 

By the exercising our faculties they are improved. 



SYNTAX. . 131 

By observing of these rules you may avoid mistakes. 

This was a betraying the trust reposed in him. 

His being called a wit, did not make him one. 

The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall attempt 
neither to palliate nor to deny. 

The sun rising, darkness flees away. 

Thus repulsed, our final hope is flat despair. 

He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 

He was greatly heated, and he drunk with avidity-* 

I would have wrote a letter. 

He had mistook his true interest. 

The coat had no seam, but was wove throughout. 

The French language is spoke in every kingdom in Europe. 

Having taken much medicine, and continuing to grow worse, 
my distressed mother said that giving me medicine seemed use- 
less. Travelling was then tried with encouraging signs of my 
growing better. 

His lesson being learned, and his other duties having been 
performed, he was to have a ride on horseback, he selecting the 
route to be taken. 

Him being my father, I love him with all his faults ; they 
knowing this, I cannot see what pleasure they can have in 
ridiculing him in my presence. 

Breaking of windows by the throwing stones is a species of 
mischief which is as wrong as dishonesty. 

Being honest is better than being a rich man and dishonest: 
to be continually cheating our fellows must create unhappiness. 

Having been educated a teacher, I must follow my profession. 

William done an act of injustice which he had frequently 
did ; he has forgot that God has saw him, and he has laid his 
head upon his pillow without asking forgiveness. 

When the Pilgrims had come to America, the streams were 
froze, the birds had flew to warmer regions ; the fierce wintry 
wind blowed ; they had been drove from their comfortable 
homes. To forsake the land of their birth was indeed sad; 
but to have forsook their faith, would have showed a want of 
sincerity and fortitude. 

[Explain the difference between the following expressions:] 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The children were amused by the dancing of the monkey. 
The children were amused by dancing the monkey. 
The teacher explained the lesson in the hearing of his class. 
The teacher explained the lesson in hearing his class. 

REVIEW. 

Parse all the other words in the foregoing sentences, except 
the Adverbs and the Conjunctions. 

EULE XII. 

Aisr Adverb belongs to the Vekb, Adjective, 
or other Adverb which it qualifies. 

]S T OTES. 

1. Adverbs are generally placed before adjectives, after 
verbs, and often between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He 
is very attentive," " She behaves well." " They are much 
esteemed." This rule is far from being universal in its appli- 
cation. It is in fact impossible to give any one rule which 
shall determine the position of the adverb in all circumstances. 

2. Adverbs should not be used where adjectives are required, 
that is, to qualify nouns or pronouns. Thus, " He dressed in a 
style conformable to the ruling fashion-," not "conformably" 
"The dress looked pretty" not "prettily" "Pretty," here, is 
an adjective describing "dress," and does not qualify the verb 
"looked." It does not express the manner of looking. 

3. From should not be used before hence, thence, and whence, 
because it is implied. Custom, however, has in a great measure 
sanctioned the violation of this rule. 

4. Hither, thither, and whither, were formerly used after verbs 
of motion. They are now used only on solemn occasions. Thus, 
" Come here," not " Come hither." 

5. Where and ichen are often incorrectly used instead of 
which and its adjuncts; as, "The situation where (in which) 
I found him," " Since when (which time) I have not seen him." 



SYNTAX. 133 

6. How should not be used for that; as, "He said how he 
would do it," It should be " that." 

7. No never qualifies a verb. Hence, when there is an 
ellipsis of the verb, no is sometimes incorrectly used instead of 
not-, as, " Will you walk or no?" It should be "not," as will 
be seen by supplying the ellipsis. Thus, " Will you walk, or 
(will you) not (walk) ?" 

8. Nay, no, and yea, yes, expressing simply negation and 
affirmation, contain in themselves a complete sense, and do not 
belong to any verb. 

9. Two negatives are improper, if intended to express the 
same negation. When so used, they destroy each other, and 
are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus. " I cannot by no means 
allow it," should be, "I can by no means allow it," or, "I 
cannot by any means allow it." 

10. Sometimes, when one of the negatives (such as dis, in, 
un, im, &c.) is joined to another word, the two negatives form 
a pleasing and delicate mode of affirming; as, " His language, 
though simple, is not inelegant," that is, " It is elegant." 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"James wrote a letter hastily." '"'Hastily" is an adv. in the 
pos. deg. (hastily, more hastily, most hastily), and belongs to 
the verb "wrote," according to Rule XII. (Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

A very smart child may learn more rapidly than is desirable. 

Economy, prudently conducted, leads very rapidly to wealth. 

She is particularly beautiful. 

The most cautious are frequently deceived. 

We should not be overcome totally by present events. 

He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard attentively 
by the whole assembly. 

He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and 
religion. » 

They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 
12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He drew up a paper, where he too frequently represented his 
own merit. 

He left Philadelphia last December, since when he has not 
been heard of. 

Whether you study or no, you never know the lesson at Jhe 
time of recitation. You don't do nothing correct. 

He did not say whether his father would consent or no. 

He will never be no taller. 

They could not travel no farther. 

Covet neither riches, or honors, or no such perishing things. 

It was cold exceedingly ; the north wind incessantly blew ; 
I have experienced seldom so severe a winter. 

This is an often error made by children ; it is of seldom 
occurrence in writing. 

She looks coldly, she is not warm enough dressed. 

Some persons are of such a nature that they look cold upon 
those who treat them affectionate. 

He arrived at the house where I live, but started from thence 
immediately. 

REVIEW. 

Parse all the other words in the foregoing sentences, except 
the Conjunctions. 

KITLE XIII. 

The Infinitive Mood is governed by the 
Veri3 ; Adjective, or Noun on which it depends. 

NOTES. 

1. To, the sign of the infinitive, is generally omitted after the 
active voice of the verbs bid, dare (to venture), need, make, see, 
hear, feel, let, and some others; as, "I saw him (to) do it." In 
the passive voice of these verbs, however, the u to" is generally 
expressed; as, "He was seen to do it." (See Appendix 33.) 

2. To, the sign of the infinitive, should not be separated from 
the verb by inserting another word. *Thus, "I am resolved to 
not go," should be, " I am resolved not to go." 



SYNTAX. 135 

3. The infinitive seems sometimes to depend upon other parts 
of speech, besides those enumerated in the rule. Thus, "Be so 
good as (conjunction) to read this letter." In such cases, the 
sentence is elliptical. Thus, " Be so good as (you must be, in- 
order) to read this letter." 

4. The infinitive is sometimes used apparently without de- 
pendence upon any word ; as, " To speak plainly, I do not 
entirely approve your conduct." This construction is elliptical; 
as, " (in order) to speak plainly," &c. 

5. The infinitive mood is frequently used as a noun, and at 
the same time retains its government of the objective case. 
Thus, " To write letters is easy." Here, " to write,' as a noun, 
is nominative to " is," and at the same time, as a verb, governs 
"letters." 

6. Tense of the Infinitive. — Whenever the action or event 
signified by the infinitive, is contemporary or future with re- 
spect to the verb on which it depends, the present tense of the 
infinitive is required. Hence, verbs expressive of hope, desire, 
intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the 
present, and not the perfect infinitive. Thus, " I expected to 
have found him," should be, " I expected to find him," 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"James tried to write a letter." " To write" is a trans, verb, 
irr., act. v., inf. m., pres. t., and governed by the verb " tried," 
according to Rule XIII. (Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

A man anxious to reach home, will aim to be at the station 
in time to secure his seat. 

A good man loves to do good. They have a wish to learn. 
He has written some things hard to be understood. 
The desire to be rich is one of the strongest of human desires. 
A man eager to learn the truth is not apt to fall into error. 
She is worthy to be loved. They need not to call her. 
I dare not to proceed so hastily. He bade me to go home. 
He was seen write the letter. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is the difference of their conduct which makes us to approve 
the one, and to reject the other. 

He was seen do it, though I heard his father to tell him not 
to do it. 

Help me to finish this work, and ^ou will not notice the time 
to pass so slowly. 

I did not intend for to hurt him. 

This is for to let you know how I am well. 

He begged to have been released from his prison. 

To live righteously, soberly, and godly, is required of all men. 

To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in 
the open air, and to preserve the mind from tumultuous emotions, 
are the best preservatives of health. 

[Supply the ellipses in the following.] 

I am not so stupid as to make such an error. 

To be candid with you, I must say, you did wrong. 

Not to leave you under the impression that I was one of your 
supporters, I did not vote for you. 

EULE XIV. 

A Conjunction connects the words or sen- 
tences BETWEEN WHICH IT STANDS. 

NOTES. 

1. There is sometimes an ellipsis of one of the words or 
sentences, giving an appearance of a conjunction not truly con- 
nect!, e; as, " That John has written his letter, is easily proved/' 
Here, " that" seems simply to introduce a clause which is the 
subject of the verb. Bat by supplying the ellipsis, " (the fact) 
thai John has written," &c, the true connective character of 
the conjunction appears. 

2. Words and clauses are often connected not by a single 
conjunction, but by two conjunctions or a conjunction and an 
adverb, corresponding to each other; as, "Give me neither 
poverty nor riches." 



SYNTAX. 



137 



3. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions that 
have a corresponding conjunction or adverb: 

Neither, - 
Either, - 
Whether, - 

Though, - 

if, 

Both, 

Not only, — 



As, 



So,{ 
I 



■ as; 

so; 



■ nor; as, It is neither cold nor hot. 
or; as, Either she or her sister must go. 
or; as, Whether he will do it or not, I cannot 

say. 
yet; as, Though he was rich, yet for our 

sakes, &c. 
then; as, If he speaks true, then you speak 

false. 
and; as, I am debtor both to the Greeks, and 

to the Barbarians. 
out also ; as, Not only his character, but also 

his life was at stake. 
as, My land is as good as yours (equality), 
as, As the stars, so shall thy seed be (equality 

or proportion). (See Appendix 34.) 
as; He is not so wise as his brother (den}nng 

equality). 
that; I am so weak that I cannot walk (conse- 
quence). 

4. The comparative degree, and the words other, rather, and 
else, are generally followed by than; as, "John is greater than 
James." 

5. After than there is almost always an ellipsis of several 
words. In supplying these words, the latter clause must be 
made analogous to the preceding; as, "John has written more 
than James (has written}" (See Appendix 35.) 

6. Conjunctions generally connect the same moods and tenses 
of verbs ; as, " He reads and writes well ;" and the same cases 
of nouns and pronouns ; as, " I saw him and her." 

7. When conjunctions connect verbs in the same mood and 
tense, the nominative is generally not repeated ; but when the 
verbs connected are in different moods or tenses, the nomi- 
native should be repeated before each; as, " He may return, 
but he will not remain." The nominative is also often repeated 
when, in the progress of the sentence, we pass from the positive 

12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

form of expression to the negative, or the contrary, or when a 
contrast is made ; " Though I admire him greatly, yet I do not 
love him" (from pos. to neg.), "Though he was rich, yet he 
became poor" (contrast), &c. 

MODEL FOE, PARSING. 

"James and John are brothers." "And" is a conjunction, 
connecting "James" and "John," according to Rule XIV. 
(Quote.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse all the words in the following sentences, correcting and 
supplying ellipses, where necessary : 

Forget the faults of others, and remember your own. 

Study universal rectitude, and cherish religious hope. 

Practise humility, and reject everything in dress, carriage, or 
conversation, which has any appearance of pride. 

If ye do these things, ye shall never fail. 

It is neither cold or hot. 

Neither despise the poor, or envy the rich. 

Though he slay me, so will I trust him. 

So as thy days, so shall thy strength be. 

He was as angry as he could not speak. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 

He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend. 

Anger glances into the heart of a wise man, but will rest 
only in the bosom of fools. 

To profess regard, and acting differently, mark a base mind. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce 
virtue. 

She was proud, though now humble. 

He is not rich, but is respectable. 

[Supply the ellipses.] 

The story was not believed we were defeated. 

Wood is not durable iron. 

One hour is long another. 

He ate so much he became sick. 

As he treated others, he expected to be treated by them. 



SYNTAX. 139 

Though he was severe with the vicious, he was lenient 

to those who tried to do right. 

It was done better by him than me 

Washington was a better man than Napoleon . 

The teacher ought to know more than his scholars . 

I was your enemy, but now am your friend. 

He is his friend to-day, but may be his enemy to-morrow. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

1. An Interjection has no dependence upon other words. . In 
parsing an interjection, all that is necessary is to tell what part 
of speech it is. 

2. Sometimes interjections have the appearance of governing 
the objective case; as, "Ah me!" But such sentences are 
always elliptical, some verb or preposition being understood ; 
as, "Ah! (pity) me." 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 

TO BE CORRECTED AND PARSED. 

I. John writes pretty. 2. I shall never do so no more. 3. The 
train of our ideas are often interrupted. 4. Was you present at 
the last meeting? 5. He dare not. act otherwise than he does. 
6. Him whom they seek is in the house. 7. George or I is the 
person. 8. They or he is much to be blamed. 9. The troop 
consist of fifty men. 10. Those set of books was a valuable 
present. 

II. A pillar sixty foot high. 12. His conduct evinced the 
most extreme vanity. 13. These trees are remarkable tall. 
14. He acted bolder than was expected. 15. This is he who I 
gave the book to. 16. From whence came they'* 17. Who' do 
you lodge with now? 18. The Select Council was not unani- 
mous in its opinion. 19. If he be sincere I am satisfied. 20. 
Her father and her were at church. 



MO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

21. The master requested him and I to read more distinctly. 
22. It is no more but his due. 23. Flatterers flatter as long, and 
no longer than they have expectations of gain. 24. John told 
the same story which you did. 25. This is the largest tree which 
I have ever seen. 26. Let he and I read the next chapter. 
27. Those sort of dealings are unjust. 28. David the son of 
Jesse was the youngest of his brothers. 29. You was very kind 
to him, he said. 30. Well, said I, what does thou think of him 
now * 

31. James is one of those boys that was kept in at school, for 
bad behaviour. 32. Thou, James, did deny the deed. 33. Nei- 
ther good nor evil come of themselves. 34. We need not to be 
afraid. 35. He expected to have gained more by the bargain. 
36. You should have drank goat's milk. 37. It was him who 
spoke first. 38. Is it me that you mean? 39. Who did you 
buy your grammar from 1 40. If one takes a wrong method at 
first setting out, it will lead them astray. 

41. Neither man nor woman were present. 42. I am more 
taller than you. 43. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. 
44. After the most straitest sect- of our religion, I lived a Phari- 
see. 45. There was more sophists than one. 46. If a person 
have lived twenty or thirty years, he should have some expe- 
. rience. 47. If this were his meaning, the prediction has failed. 
48. Fidelity and truth is the foundation of all justice. 49. And 
when they had went out, they saw no man there save Jesus 
only. 50. Strive not with a man without cause, if he have done 
thee no harm. 

51. I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. 52 ; The 
girl's book it is torn in pieces. 53. It is not me who he is m 
love with. 54. He which commands himself, commands the whoie 
world. 55. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 58. The peo- 
ples happiness is the statesmans honour. 57. Changed to a 
wcrser shape thou canst not be. 58. I have drunk no spirituous 
lio^ors this six years. 59. He is taller than me, but I am 
stronger than him. 60. Solid peace and contentment consists 
neither in beauty or riches, but in the favour of God. 

61. After who is the King of Israel come out 1 62. The reci- 
procations of love and friendship between he and I, have been 



SYNTAX. 141 

many and sincere. 63. Abuse of mercies ripen us for judg- 
ment. 64. Peter and John is not at school to-day. 65. Tbre€ 
of them was taken into custody. 66. To study diligently, and 
behave genteelly, is commendable. 67. The enemies who we 
have most to fear are those of our own hearts. 68. Suppose life 
never so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may still be made, 
69. Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell mt 
what became of Elijah. 70. Neither the master nor the scholar* 
is reading. 

71. Trust not him, whom, you know, is dishonest. 72. I love 
no interests but that of truth and virtue. 73. Every imagination 
of the thoughts of the heart are evil continually. 74. No one ' 
can be blamed for taking due care of their health. 75. They 
crucified him, and two others with him, on either side one, and 
Jesus in the midst. 76. I have read Popes Homer, and Dry- 
dens Virgil. 77. He that is diligent you should commend. 

78. There was an earthquake which made the earth to tremble. 

79. He was very much made on at school. 80. Though he 
were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he 
suffered. 

81. If he is alone tell him the news; but if there is anybody 
with him, do not tell him. 82. They ride faster than us. 
83. Though the measure be mysterious, it is worthy of atten- 
tion. 84. If he does but approve my endeavours, it will be an 
ample reward. 85. Was it him who came last] Yes, it was 
him. 86. I shall take care that no one shall suffer no injur)', 
87. Every man should act suitable to his character and station 
in life. 88. His arguments were exceeding clear. 89. I only 
spoke three words on that subject. 90. The ant and the bee 
sets a good example before dronish boys. 

91. Evil communications corrupts good manners. 92. Hanni- 
bal was one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw. 
93. The middle station of life seems to be the most advantage- 
ously situated for gaining of wisdom. 94. These are the rules 
of grammar, by the observing which you may avoid mistakes. 
95. Take care, little children, lest the dog bites you. 96. My 
exercises are not well w r rote, I do not hold my pen well. 
97. Grammar teaches uS & speak proper. 98. She accused her 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

companion for having betrayed her. 99. I will not dissent with 
her. 100. Who shall I give it to 1 

101. Who are you looking for 1 102. That is a book which 
I am much pleased with. 103. That picture of the emperor's is 
a very exact resemblance of him. 104. Every thing that we 
here enjoy, change, decay, and come to an end. 105. It is not 
him they blame so much. 100. No people has more faults than 
U.ey that pretend to have none. 107. The laws of Draco is said 
to have been wrote with blood. 108. It is so clear, or so ob- 
vious, as I need not explain it. 109. She taught him and I ii 
read. 110. The greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the 
more dangerous he is to society, and the more less fit for a com- 
panion. 

111. Each has their own faults, and every one should endea- 
vour to correct their own. 112. Let your promises be few y and 
such that you can perform. 113. His being at enmity with 
Csesar and Antony were the cause of perpetual discord. 114. 
Their being forced to their books in an age at enmity with all 
restraint, have been the reason why many have hated books all 
their lives. 115. Do not despise the state of the poor, lest it be- 
comes your own condition. 116. It was his duty to have inter- 
posed his authority in an affair of so much importance. 117. Fie 
spent his whole life in the doing good. 118. Every gentleman 
who frequented the house, and conversed with the erectors of 
this occasional club, were invited to pass an evening when they 
thought fit. 119. The winter has not been so severe as we ex- 
pected it to have been. 120. A lampoon, or a satire, does not 
carry in them robbery or murder. 

121. She and you were not mistaken in her conjectures. 
122. My sister and I. as well as my brother, are employed in 
their respective occupations. 123. He repents him of that indis- 
creet action. 124. It was me. and not him. that wrote it. 125. 
Art thou him ? 126. I am a man who approves of wholesome 
discipline, and who recommend it to others; but I am not a per- 
sen who promotes severity, or who object to mild and generous 
treatment. 127. Prosperity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very 
much obstructs the knowledge of ourselves. 128. To do to 
ethers as we would that they should* do to us, it is our duty 



SYNTAX. 143 

129. This grammar was purchased at Ogle s the bookseller's. 

130. The council was not unanimous. 

131. Who spilt the ink upon the table? Him. 132. Who 
lost this book? Me. 133, Whose pen is this? Johns. 134 
There is in fact no impersonal verbs in any language. 135. A 
nan may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well ai 
read them in a description. 136. I had no sooner placed her a; 
fny right hand, by the fire, but she opened to me the reason oi 
her visit. 137. A prudent wife, she shall be blessed. 138. The 
house you speak of, it cost me five hundred pounds. 139. No! 
only the counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's opinion also 
favored his cause. 140. The vicious inclined dog was shot 
before he had bit any of the children. 

141. This palace has been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's 
142. They did not every man cast away the abomination of theii 
eyes. 143. Whose w T orks are these ? They are Cicero, the most 
eloquent of men's. 144. The mighty rivals are now at length 
agreed. 145. The time of William making the experiment, at 
length arrived. 146. If we alter the situation of any of the 
words, we shall presently be sensible of the melody suffering. 

147. This picture of the king's does not much resemble him 

148. These pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy. 149. 
I offer observations, that a long and chequered pilgrimage have 
enabled me to make on man. 150. Clelia is a vain woman, 
who, if we do not flatter, she will be disgusted. 

151. The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves on so 
popular a subject. 152. He acted conformable with his instruc- 
tions, and' cannot be censured justly. 153. No person could 
speak stronger, nor behave nobler, than our young advocate, for 
the cause of true religious toleration. 154. They were studious 
to ingratiate with those who it was dishonourable to favour 
155. The house framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with 
great freedom of the king's prerogative. 156. Neither flatter o* 
contemn the rich or the great. 157. Many would exchange 
gladly their honours, beautv. and riches, for that more quiet and 
humbler station, which thou art now dissatisfied with. 158. 
Uigh hopes, and florid views, is a great enemy to tranquillity, 



1-14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

159. Many persons will not believe but what they are free from 
prejudices. 16C. I will lie me down in peace, and take my rest. 

161. This word I have only found in Spenser. 162. The king 
being apprized of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 16«*. 
A too gteat variety of studies dissipate and weaken the irJn-. 
104. James was resolved to not indulge himself in such a i:ruoJ 
amusement. 165. They admired the countryman's, as thay 
called him, candour and uprightness. 160. The pleasuie o^ 
pain of one passion differ from those of another. 167. The 
court of Spain, who gave the order, were not aware of the con- 
sequences. 168. There was much spoke and wrote on each side 
of the question, but I have chose to suspend my decision. 169. 
Religion raises men above themselves; irreligion sinks them be- 
neath the brutes; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck 
of perishable earth; this opens for them a prospect to the skies. 
170. Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they may be 
regarded, they are the best means of preserving health. 

171. To despise others on account of their poverty, or to value 
ourselves for our wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. 172. 
As his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few 
persons pitied him. 173. And they were judged every man ac- 
cording to their works. 174. Riches is the bane of human hap- 
piness. 175. When Garrick appeared, Peter was for some time 
in doubt whether it could be him or not. 176. The company 
was very numerous. 177. Shall the throne of iniquity have fel- 
lowship with thee, which frameth mischief by a law? 178. Nor 
let no comforter delight my ear. 179. They were obliged to 
contribute more than us. 180. The Barons had little more to 
rely on, besides the power of their families. 

181. The sewers must be kept so clear, as the wat r may run 
away. 182. Such among us who follow that profession. 188. 
No body is so sanguine to hope for it. 184. She behaved un« 
kinder than I expected. 185. Agreeable to your request I send 
this letter. 186. She is exceeding fair. 187. Thomas is not as 
docile as his sister. 188. There was no other book but this. 
189. He died by a fever. 190. My sister and I waited till they 
were called. 

191. The friends and amusements which he preferred <xr* 



SYNTAX. 145 

runted his morals. 192. Henry, though at first he showed an 
unwillingness, yet afterwards he granted his request. 193. Him 
and her live very happily together. 194. She invited Jane and 
1 to see her new dress. 195. She uttered such cries that pierced 
the heart of every one who heard them. 196. Maria is not as 
clever as her sister Ann. 197. Though he promises ever so 
solemnly, I will not believe him. 198. The full moon was no 
sooner up, in all its brightness, but he opened to them the gate 
of paradise. 199. It rendered the progress very slow of the new 
invention. 200. This book is Thomas', that is James'. 

201. Who, who has the judgment of a man, would have drawn 
such an inference? 202. George was the most diligent scholar 
whom I ever knew. 203. I have observed some children to use 
deceit. 204. He durst not to displease his master. 205. The 
hopeless delinquents might, each in their turn, adopt the expos- 
tulatory language of Job. 206. Several of our English words, 
some centuries ago, had different meanings to those they have 
now. 207. With this booty, he made off to a distant part of the 
country, where he had reason to believe that neither he nor his 
master were known. 208. I have gone at Philadelphia. 209. 
Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we most esteem 1 
He who strives to correct his scholars by prudent advice and 
motives of honour, or another who will lash them severely for not 
repeating their lessons as they ought ! 210. But she always be- 
haved with great severity to her maids ; and if any one of them were 
negligent of their duty, or made a slip in their conduct, nothing 
would serve her but burying the poor girls alive. 

211. They that honour me, I will honour. 212. For the poor 
always ye have with you. 213. The first Christians of the gen- 
t'.le world made a simple and entire transition from a state as bad, 
if not w T orse, than that of entire ignorance, to the Christianity of 
Ihe New Testament. 214. The Duke had not behaved with 
thai loyalty as was expected. 215. Milton seems to have been 
well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what it was 
that nature had bestowed upon him more bountifully tiian upon 
others. 216. He only promised me a loan of the book for two 
days. 217. I was once intendingto have written a poem. 218. 
A very slow child will often be found to g-et lessons by heart ai 
13 k 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

soon as, nay, sometimes sooner, than one who is ten times as 
intelligent. 219. It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive 
faculties, that we only can attain those powers of conception 
which are essential to taste. 220. No man is fit for free conver- 
sation for the inquiry after truth, if he be exceedingly reserved ; 
if ho be haughty and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive 
and dogmatical in his opinions; if he be one who always affects 
to outshine all the company; if he be fretful and peevish; if he 
affect wit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. 

221. Conversation is the business, and let every one that pleasa 
add their opinion freely. 222. There are many more shining 
qualities in the mind of man, but there is none so useful as dis- 
cretion. 223. Frequent commission of crimes harden his heart. 
224. In our earliest youth the contagion of manners are observ- 
able. 225. The pyramids of Egypt has stood more than three 
thousand years. 226. A few pangs of conscience now and then 
interrupts his pleasure, and whispers to him that he once had 
better thoughts. 227. There is more cultivators of the earth 
than of their own hearts. 228. Nothing but vain and foolish 
pursuits delight some persons. 229. Not one of those whom thou 
sees clothed in purple are happy. 230. Wisdom, virtue, happi- 
ness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 

231. Luxurious living and high pleasures begets a langour and 
satiety which destroys all enjoyment. 232. The modest virgin, 
the prudent wife, or the careful matron, are much more service- 
able in life than petticoated philosophers. 233. Man is not such 
a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are 
moved. 234. My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. 
235. The parliament addressed the king, and has been prorogued 
the same day. 236. I have seen some young persons 10 conduct 
themselves very discreetly. 237. We heard the thundei to roll. 
238. It is a great support to virtue, when we see a good mind to 
maintain its patience and tranquillity under injuries and afflic- 
tions, and to cordially forgive its oppressors., 239. The flock, 
and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the object of the shep. 
herd's care. 240. When the nation complain, the rulers should 
listen to their voice. 

241. I saw one whom I took to be she. 242. Let him ba 



SYNTAX. 147 

wrom he may, I am not afraid of him. 243. Who do >ou hmk 
him to be? 244. I am certain it was not him. 245. l believe 
it to have been they. 246. It might have been him. 247. It ia 
impossible to be them. 248. It was either him or his brother 
that gained the first prize. 249. If he is but discreet he will 
Eucceed. 250. If he be but in health, I am content. 

251. If he does but intimate his desire, it will produce obedi^ 
ence. 252. It is so clear as I need not explain it 253. The 
relations are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal 
of examination. 254. The one is equally deserving as the other. 
255. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 256. 
His raiment was so white as snow. 257. The not attending to 
this rule is the cause of a very common error. 258. The horse 
was stole. 259. They have chose the part of honour and virtue. 
269. The Rhine was froze over. 

261. She was showed into the drawing-room. 262. My peo- 
ple have slid backwards. 263. He has broke the bottle. 264. 
Some fell by the way-side, and was trode down. 265. The price 
of cloth has lately rose very much. 266. The work was very 
well began. 267. His vices have weakened his mind, and 
oroke his health. 268. He would have went with us, had he 
been invited. 269. Can any person on their entrance into life, 
be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ? 270. The chasm 
made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad, and one hundred 
fathom in depth. 

271. There is six foot water in the hold. 272. I have no 
interests but that of truth and virtue. 273. Those sort of favours 
did real injury. 274. Thou who has been a witness of the fact, 
can give an account of it. 275. The child which was lost is 
found. 276. I am the person who adopt that sentiment and main- 
tains it. 277. Thou art a pupil who possesses bright parts, but 
who hast cultivated them but little. 278. Thou art the friend that 
hast often relieved me, and that has not deserted me now in the 
time of peculiar need. 279. The soldiers, with a single except- 
ion, who passed for the bravest man in the regiment, offered their 
services. 280. Either I or thou am greatly mistaken. 

281. He or I is sure of this week's prize. 282. Either Thomas 
er thou has spilt the ink on my paper. 283. John or I has dona 



J 13 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it. 284. lie or thou is the person who must go to London op 
that business. 265. The candidate being chosen was owing i? 
the influence of party. 286. The winter has not been as severe 
as we expected it to have been. 287. Him and her were of th* 
same age. 288. If the night have gathered aught of evil dis 
perse it. 289. Neither poverty nor riches was injurious to him 
290. He or they was offended at it. 

291. Whether one or more was concerned in the business, 
does not yet appear. 292. The cares of this life, or the deceit- 
fulness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a pro- 
mising mind. 293. Disappointments and afflictions, however 
disagreeable, they often improve us. 294. Simple and innocent 
pleasures, they alone are durable. 295. Which rule, if it had 
been observed, a neighbouring prince would have wanted a great 
deal of that incense which has been offered up to him. 296. 
Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, and such, from 
which others as well as himself might receive profit and delight, 
yet they are all within his own breast. 297. That warm cli- 
mates should accelerate the growth of the human body, and 
shorten its duration, are very reasonable to believe. 298. Tha; 
it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, to *>e 
just and kind to our fellow-creatures, and to be pious and faithf«. ; 
to him who made us, admit not -of any doubt in a rational and 
w 7 ell-in formed mind. 299. The great power and force of custom 
forms another argument against keeping bad company. 300 
Public spirit is a more universal principle than a sense of honour 

301. Do not interrupt me thyself, nor let no one disturb me. 
302. lam resolved not to comply with the proposal, neither af 
present nor at any other time. 303. As far as I ca:i judge, a 
spirit of independency and freedom, tempered hy sentiments of 
decency and the love of order, influence, in a most remarkable 
manner, the minds of the subjects of this happy republic. 304. 
That it is our duty to be pious admit not of any doubt. 305. If 
h.3 becomes very rich, he may be less industrious. 306. It wa v * 
wrote extempore." 307. Romulus, which founded Rome, killed 
his brother Remus. 308. He was extreme prodigal, and iiis 
property is now noar exhausted. 309. They lived conformable 



SYNTAX. 149 

to the rules of prudence. 310. He speaks very fluent, reads ex- 
cellent, but does not think very coherent. 

311. They came agreeable to their promise, and conducted 
themselves suitable to the occasion. 312. They hoped for a soon 
and prosperous issue to the war. 313. Such men that act treach- 
erously ought to be avoided. 314. He gained nothing farther by 
his speech, but only to be commended for his eloquence. 315. 
This is none other but the gate of paradise. 316. Such sharp 
replies that cost him his life. 317. To trust in him is no more 
but to acknowledge his power. 318. 1 understood him the best 
of all others who spoke on the subject. 319. Eve was the fairest 
of all her daughters. 320. He is the likeliest of any other to 
succeed. 

321. Jane is the wittier of the three, not the wiser. 322. John 
can write better than me. 323. He is as good as her. 324. 
Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death. 325. She 
suffers hourly more than me. 326. They know how 7 to write as 
well as him ; but he is a better grammarian than thern. 327. 
The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than 
he. 328. They are greater gainers than us. 329. She is not so 
learned as him. 330. If the king give us leave, w r e may perform 
the office as well as them that do. 

331. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 332. 
Every one of the letters bear date after his banishment. 333. 
Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which they are 
entitled. 334. Every person, whatever be. their station, are 
bound by the duties of morality and religion. 335. Neither of 
those men seem to have any idea that their opinions may be ill- 
founded. 336. By discussing what relates to each particular in 
their order, we shall better understand the subject. 337. Are 
either of these men your friend ! 338. I always intended to 
have rewarded my son according to his merit. 339. We have 
done no more than it was our duty to have done. 340. From 
the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have been 
a mRn of letters. 
IS* 



PROSODY 



6J7 Prosody in the strict acceptation of the term, treats only of t>ers?$- 
mtion. For convenience in teaching, however, several other topics are 
usually either included under this head, or at least discussed in the same 
part of the hook. Among these may be reckoned Punctuation, which 
properly belongs to Orthography (5) ; Orthoepy, or the right pronunciation 
of words, which properly belongs to the science of Elocution; and 
Figures, which belong more to Rhetoric than to Grammar. Still it seems 
desirable to give the student of grammar the means of knowing at least 
the nomenclature, and some of the more important principles of these 
subjects. As they cannot be attended to with advantage till the student is 
familiar with the general principles of grammar, they are treated of under 
the same head with Prosody, which is always, and rightfully, the last 
point of grammar that the student learns. Under the fourth head of 
grammar, therefore, four topics will be considered, viz. Punctuation 
Orthoepy, Figures, and Versificat on. 

PUNCTUATION. 

61S. Punctuation treats of the use of capital letters, and of th* 
various points and characters, other than letters, that are used in 
writing. 

CAPITALS. 

619. In ancient writings, all the letters were capitals, and followed each 
other continuously, without being divided into words and sentences, eilhej 
by points or by separation in space. Small letters were first introduced 
about the seventh century. For many centuries after the introduction of 
the small letters, capitals continued to be used much more than they are 
now. Nouns in particular, whether proper or common, always com 
menced with a capital. Writers and printers now vary somewhat in re- 
gard to the use of capitals, but the following rules may be considered as 
exhibiting present usage as nearly as it can be ascertained. 

620. The title page of a book, and the headings of chapter s % 
should be printed entirely in capitals. 

021. In quoting the title of a book, every noun and other prin- 
cipal word should begin with a capital ; as, " Sparks' Life of 
Washington." 

(150) 



PROSODY. 151 

622 The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or wait- 
ing of any kind, should begin with a capital; also, the first word 
after a period or a note of interrogation ; and the first word in 
every line of poetry. 

623. All names and titles of the Deity begin with a capital; 
as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being. 

624. All proper names and titles of office or honour; as. Job?*, 
Washington, Baltimore, Broadway, Chief Justice Taney, General 
Cadwallader, United States Gazette, &c. ; also, adjectives de- 
rived from proper names; as, American, Pennsylvanian, Spa- 
nish, English, French, &c. 

625. The first word of an example or quotation, following a 
semicolon, begins with a capital ; as, " Temperance promotes 
health." 

626. The Pronoun I, and the interjection O, are always 
capitals. 

The Points in general, 

627. The Points now used in writing, as well as the distinction between 
small letters and capitals, were entirely unknown among the ancients. 
Aristophanes, a grammarian of Alexandria, about two centuries and a half 
before the Christian era, is said to have invented some contrivance of the 
kind. Whatever his invention was, it was subsequently lost, or at least 
never came into general use, and an attempt to revive it in the time of 
Charlemagne, met with only partial success. Some few marks of punctua- 
tion seem to have come gradually into use, but without any fixed or uni- 
form usage. At length, in the fifteenth century, soon after the invention 
of printing, Aldus Manutius, a learned printer of Venice, increased the 
number of signs, established rules for their use, and reduced the art to 
nearly the condition in which it now exists. As in regard to the use of 
capitals, so here there is some discrepancy among writers and printers in 
their mode of punctuation. The following rules, however, are believed 
to exhibit the established usage, so far as such a usage exists, or can be 
ascertained. 

628. The principal characters used^im punctuation are the Comma (,), 
Semicolon (;), Colon (:), Period (.), and Interrogation (?), which are re 
lated to each other; also the Exclamation (!), Dash (— ), Parenthesis ( ) 
Apostrophe ('), &c. The period and interrogation are considered as 
marking a complete sentence. The colon marks a portion of a sentence 
subordinate to the period, the semicolon subordinate to the colon, and th6 
comma subordinate to the semicolon. Hence, a comma marks the smallest 
portion into which a sentence can be divided. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE COMMA. 

629. In a simple sentence (409), when the subject of the verb 
is not a single word, but the nominative with several adjuncts, a 
comma is usually inserted before the verb; as, "A steady and 
undivided attention to one object, is a sure mark of a superior 
mind." 

630. In compound sentences, the different members are sepa- 
rated by commas; as, "Crafty men contemn studies, simple men 
admire them, and wise men use them ;" except where the mem- 
bers are very short, or very closely connected ; as, " Revelation 
tells us how we may attain happiness." 

631. Two words connected by a conjunction expressed, do 
not admit a comma between them; as, "The earth and the 
moon are planets ;" " He catches and arrests the hours;" "He 
acts prudently and vigorously." When, however, the conjunc- 
tion is not expressed, a comma is inserted ; as, "He is a plain, 
honest man; except where two adjectives express, not different ■ 
qualities of the noun, but different modifications of the same 
quality ; as, " A dark brown coat." 

632. More than tivo words connected in construction, whether 
with or without a conjunction, have a comma after each ; as, 
" Poetry, music, and painting-, are fine arts." Except where the 
words so connected are adjectives. The last adjective in such 
a case should not be separated from the noun immediately fol- 
lowing; as, "David was a brave, wise, and prudent prince." 

633. Words in pairs take a comma between the pairs; as> 
" Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and 
ruin, are the consequences of civil war." 

634. Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma when- 
ever the latter noun is accompanied by several adjuncts; as, 
" Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles" If the last three words bo 
emitted, no comma will be required ; as, " Paul the apostle." 

635. The nominative independent > and the nominative abso- 
lute (422, 423V with the words dependent on them, are separated 
by commas fYom the rest of the sentence; as, " My son, hear Hi* 
instructions of thy father," " I remain, sir, your obedient ser- 
vant," " The time of vouth being precbus, we should derote H 
to improvement" 



PR030DY. 153 

636. Comparative and antithetical clauses are separated by a 
comma ; thus, "As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so 
doth my soul pant after thee," " Though deep, yet clear ; though 
gentle, yet not dull." When the comparison is very short, the 
comma is omitted ; as, " Wisdom is better than gold." 

637. A short expression in the manner of a quotation is sepa* 
rated by commas; as, " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.' 3 

638. Nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, &c, when con- 
sidered important, and particularly at the commencement of a 
sentence, must be separated from the context by a comma; as, 
" Again, our reputation does not depend on the caprice of man, 
but on our own good actions." 

639. The Relative with its clause is usually separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "He, who disregards 
the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned." Ex- 
cept when the relative is so closely connected with the antece- 
dent that they cannot be separated;" as, "Self-denial is the 
sacrifice which virtue must make." 

640. That, used as a conjunction, is preceded by a comma ; 
as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy." 

641. A verb understood requires a comma; as, "Reading 
makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; and writing, an 
exact man." 

642. As, thus, &c. used to introduce examples, or quotations, 
are separated by a comma ; as, &c. 

643. Words repeated are separated by a comma; as, " Holy, 
holy, holy art Thou." 

644. Inverted sentences, by throwing two or more words out 
of their regular connexion, often require a comma; as, "To 
God, nothing is impossible." In the natural order it would be, 
"Nothing is impossible to God." 

645. Adjectives, participles, adverbs, infinitives, &c, when 
separated from, their dependent word, or accompanied by several 
adjuncts, generally require the insertion of commas; as, "His 
talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering 
him conspicuous," " To conclude, I can only say this," &c, 
54 Among the roots of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream, 
they frame," &>c. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE SEMICOLON. 

646. When a sentence consists of several members, and these 
members are complex and subdivided by commas, the largei 
divisions of the sentence are sometimes separated by the semi- 
colon ; thus, " As the desire of approbation, when it works ac- 
cording to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in 
every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive to 
them, when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

647. When several short sentences follow each other, each 
containing a complete sense in itself, but all having a common 
dependence upon some antecedent clause, they are generally 
separated from the antecedent clause by a comma, and from each 
other by a semicolon ; as, »' Philosophers assert, that nature is 
unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures 
in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and 
that all future generations will continue to make discoveries." 

648. Several short sentences following each other, closely connected in 
meaning, but without any common grammatical dependence, are some- 
times separated by a semicolon; as, " Every thing grows old; every thing 
passes away; every thing disappears." 

649. When a sentence containing a complete sense in itself, 
is followed by a clause which is added by way of inference, ex- 
planation, or example, the additional clause, if introduced by a 
conjunction expressed, is separated from the main clause by a 
semicolon. Thus, " Apply yourself to study ; for it will re- 
dound to your honour," " Prepositions govern the objective case ; 
as, I write with a pen." 

650. When a general term stands in apposition to several 
others which are particulars under it, the general term is sepa- 
rated from the particulars by a semicolon, and the particulars 
are separated from each other by commas ; as, " Adjective Pro- 
nouns are subdivided into four classes ; possessive, demonstrative, 
distributive, and indefinite." 

THE COLON. 

651. When several short sentences follow each other, each 
containing a complete sense in itself, but all having a common 



PROSODY. 155 

dependence upon some subsequent clause, these sentences are 

separated from the subsequent clause by a colon, and from each 
other by a semicolon; as, "That Nature is unlimited in her 
operations; that she has inexhaustible resources in reserve ; that 
knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future 
fenerations will continue to make discoveries: these are among 
the assertions of philosophers." 

652. When a sentence containing a complete sense in itself 
is followed by a clause which is added by way of inference, ex 
planation, or example, the additional clause, if appended without 
any conjunction expressed, is separated from the main clause by 
a colon; as, u Apply yourself to study: it will redound to your 
honour." 

THE PERIOD. 

653. Sentences which are complete in sense, and not con- 
nected either in meaning or grammatical construction, are sepa- 
rated by a period. Thus, "Fear God. Honour the king. Have 
charity towards all men." 

654. Short sentences, when closely connected in meaning", though without 
any grammatical connexion, insert a semicolon instead of a period (*648). 

655. Long sentences, if complete, even though grammatically 
connected, often insert a period. Thus,- "He who lifts himself 
up to the notice and observation of the world, is, of all men, the 
least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a 
thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every part." 

656. A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, 
section?, &c. ; also, after all abbreviations ; as, A. D., Art. XIV., 
J. Smithy &c. 

THE INTERROGATION. 

657. A question is reckoned as equal to a complete sentence, 
and the mark of interrogation as equal to a period. 

658. The interrogation is always put at the end of a direct 
question ; as, " Why do you neglect your duty ?" 

659. The indirect question does not require the interrogation ; as, *• lit 
mqcired, why you neglected your duty." 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 

660. The dash ( — ) is used where the sentence breaks oft 
abruptly, where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment, or 
where a significant pause is required ; as, " And God said— 
what] — let there be light." 

661. The exclamation (!) is used after expressions of sudden 
emotion of any kind; also, in invocations or addresses; as, 
" Eternity ! thou pleasing, dreadful thought !" When Oh is 
used, the point is placed immediately after it, or after the next 
word; as, "Oh! that I had been more diligent." But when O 
is used, the point is placed after some intervening words; as, 
" O my respected friends !" 

682. The parenthesis ( ) includes a clause inserted in the 
body of a sentence, which contains some useful information or 
remark, but which may be omitted without injuring the gram- 
matical construction of the sentence ; as, " Know ye not, brethren, 
(for I speak to them that know the lav/,) how that the law hath 
dominion over a man as long as he liveth ?" When the clause 
is short, and falls in with the general drift of the sentence, the 
parenthesis is now very generally omitted, and commas used in its 
place; as, " Mantua, Milan, and Parma, fruitful provinces of 
Italy, have often been the theatre of war." 

663. Crotchets or brackets [ ] are used to enclose a word 
or phrase which is interpolated, and which is intended to supply 
some deficiency, or to correct some mistake. The parenthesis 
is sometimes used for the same purpose. 

664. The apostrophe ("' ) is used when a letter is omitted ; 
as, enrich? d for enriched. 

6C5, The marks of quotation (" ") are put at the beginning 
*nd end of a passage quoted' from an author in his own words. 

6G6. The hyphen (-) is used to connect compound words; as, 
lap-dog. It is also used at the end of a line when the line ends 
•with a broken word which is finished in the next line. The 
brace ( | ) is used to connect words or phrases. 

663. The caret ( j\ ) is used to show that some word is omit- 
ted. The ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters in a word 

are omitted : as, W- — -n, for Washington. Several asterisks 



PROSODY. 157 

are sometimes used for the same purpose ; as, J * * * S * * * foi 
John Smith. 

669. The dueresis ( •• ) separates two vowels which would 
otherwise be united in a diphthong; as, aerial. 

670. The index (0^7~) points to remarkable passages; the 
section ( 5 ) divides into chapters or portions; the paragraph 
(*lT) begins a new thought. 

671. The vowel marks are the acute accent ( / ), the grave 
accent ( v ), the circumflex accent ( A ), the long sound (~ ), and 
the short sound ("). The marks of reference are the asterisk 
( * ), the obelisk or dagger ( f ), the double dagger ( { ), the 
parallels ( || ), &c. &e. 

ORTHOEPY. 

672. Orthoepy, in its most general acceptation, means correct pronun- 
ciation. In that sense, it may include the pronunciation of letters, the 
sounds of which have already been considered under the head of Ortho- 
graphy ; the pronunciation of single words, which would connect it with 
the second general head of grammar, which treats of words; and the pro- 
nunciation of words in their associated capacity, that is, rn sentences, both 
prose and poetical, which extends the subject to Syntax ar. d Prosody. The 
word Orthoepy, however, is generally limited in its meaning to the second 
of these ideas, viz : the correct pronunciation of particular words. This, 
in a language so very irregular in this respect as the English, must be learn- 
ed by the ear, and by reference to some standard pronouncing dictionary, 
rather than by rule. The whole subject, indeed, especially in the general 
acceptation of it Crst mentioned, belongs to the lexicographer and the 
elocutionist, rather than to the grammarian. Still, it seems important to 
explain briefly some of the terms used in reference to it, and to state a few 
of the general principles. 

ACCENT. 

673. Accent is a stress of the voice laid upon a particular syl- 
lable, distinguishing it from the rest of the word, 

674. Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its 
syllables distinguished in this way from the rest. . In addition fca 
this, which is called the primary accent, if the word is long, it 
often has a secondary accent upon some other syllable ; as in 
the words, repartee, referee, domineer, &c. 

675. To determine the place of the primary accent is a matt.PT 

14 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of indispensable importance to correct pronunciation, lie dif- 
ficulty is as grea* as its importance. English words are derived 
mainly from two sources, the Saxon and the Latin. The idioms 
of the two languages, so far as the accent is concerned, are di 
rectly opposite. The tendency of the Saxon is, through all the 
derivatives of a word, to retain the accent on the same syllable 
on which it is in the root ; as, thought, thoughtful, thoughtful" 
ness, &c. In the Latin, on the contrary, the place of the accent 
depends upon the termination, and consequently changes with 
ehe different changes of the termination; as, "different, dif- 
ferential, indifferent, &c. In consequence of these opposite 
tendencies, and the frequent /pcillations between the twe, it 
becomes next to impossible t« reduce the usages of the language 
to any settled rales 02 analogies, without making them very 
numerous, with still moie numerous exceptions. The following 
rules, which are copied with slight alterations from the octavo 
edition of Murray's Grammar, present, perhaps, as correct a view 
of the analogies of the language, in this respect, as can be 
obtained. 

Accent on Dissyllables, 

676. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the 
former syllable is commonly accented ; as, " Childish, kingdom, 
actest, acted, toilsome, lover, scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, 
fulness, meekly, artist." 

677. Dissyllables, formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical 
word, have commonly the accent on the latter; as, " To beseem, 
to bestow, to return." 

678. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, ti;e 
verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun, on 
the former syllable ; as, " To cement, a cement ; to contrast, a 
contract; to presage, a presage." 

679. This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom 
have their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it on the 
latter syllable ; as, " Delight, perfume." Those nouns which, in 
the common order of language, must have preceded the verbs, 
often transmit their accent to the verbs they form, and inversely. 
Thus, the noun " water," must have preceded the verb " Ui 



PROSODY. 159 

ivater," as the verb "to correspond," must hare preceded the 
noun " correspondent :" and " to pursue" dairies priority to " pur- 
suit." So that we may conclude, wherever verbs deviate from 
the rule, it is seldom by chance, and generally in those words 
only where a superior law of accent takes place. 

630. All dissyllables ending in y, our, ow, le, ish, k 7 te~ f 
age, en, et ; as, " Cranny, labour, wallow, willow (except allow, 
avow, endow, below, bestow) ; battle, banish, cambric, batter, 
courage, fasten, quiet;" accent the former syllable. 

681. Dissyllable nouns in er ; as, "Canker, butter," have the 
accent on the former syllable. 

682. Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and e final; 
as, "Comprise, escape;" or having a diphthong in the last sylla- 
ble; as, " Appease, reveal ;" or ending in two consonants; as. 
'* Attend ;" have the accent on the latter syllable. 

683. Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the latter sylla 
ble, have commonly their accent on the latter syllable; as, "Ap- 
plause ;" except seme words in ain ; as " Villain, curtain, 
mountain." 

684. Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated 
in the pronunciation, have always the accent on the first syllable , 
as, " Lion, riot, quiet, liar, ruin ;" except " create." 

Accent on Trisyllables. 

685. Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing 
a syllable, retain the accent of the radical word; as, "Loveli- 
ness, tenderness, contemner, wagoner, physical, bespatter, com 
meriting, commending, assurance." 

686. Trisyllables ending in ous, al, ion ; as, " arduous, capi 
tal, mention," accent the first. 

687. Trisyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first 
syllable; as, "Countenance, continence, armament, imminent, 
elegant, propagate;" unless they are derived from words having 
the accent on the last ; as, " Connivance, acquaintance ;" and 
unless the middle syllable has a vowel before two consonants ; as, 
" Promulgate." 

688. Trisyllables ending in y ; as, " entity, specify, liberty, 
dctory, subsidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

689. Trisyllables ending in re or le, accent the first syllable ; 
as, " Legible, theatre ;" except " Disciple," and some words 
which have a preposition; as, " Example, indenture." 

6fO Trisyllables ending in ude, commonly accent the first 
syllaUe; as, "Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 

091. Trisyllables ending in ator, have the accent on the mid- 
die syllables ; as, " Spectator, creator," &c. ; except " orator, 
senator, barrator, legator." 

692. Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diph- 
thong; as, "Endeavour;" or a vowel before two consonants; as, 
"Domestic;" accent the middle jllable. 

693. Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllabic 
are commonly French ; as, " Acquiesce, repartee, magazine ;" 
or they are words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to a 
long sy.l'ablo; as, "Immature, overcharge." 

Accent on Polysyllables. 

694. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, 
generally follow the accent of the words from which they are 
derived ; as, " arrogating, continency, incontinently, commenda- 
ble, communicableness." 

695. Words ending in ator have the accent generally on the 
penultimate, or last syllable but one: as, "Emendator, gladiator, 
equivocator, prevaricator." 

696. Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the 
first syllable ; as, " amicable, despicable ;" unless the second 
syllable has a vowel before two consonants ; as, " combustible, 
condemrrable." 

697. Words ending in ion, ous, and ty, have their accent on 
the antepenultimate, or last syllable but two; as, "Salvation, 
victorious, activity." 

698. Words which end in ia, io, and cat, have the accent on 
the antepenult; as, " Cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical." 

699. The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as com 
plete or infallible, but proposed as useful. Almost every rule of 
every language has its exceptions; and, in English, as in other 
tongues, much must be learned by example and authority. 

700. It may be further observed, that though the syllable on which the 



PROSODY. 161 

principal accent is placed, is fixed and certain, yet we may, and do fre 
quently make the secondary principal, and the principal secondary: thus 
"Caravan, complaisant, violin, repartee, referee, privateer, domineer," maj 
all have the greater stress on the first, and the less on the last syllable, 
without any violent offence to the ear : nay, it may be asserted that tho 
principal accent on the first syllable of these words, and none at all on the 
last, though certainly improper, has nothing in it grating or discordant/ 
but placing an accent on the second syllable of these words, would entirely 
derange them, and produce a great harshness and dissonance. The same 
observations may be applied to " demonstration, lamentation, provocation 
navigator, propagator, alligator," and every similar word in the language. 

EMPHASIS. 

701. Emphasis is a stress of the voice laid upon a particulai 
word, distinguishing 1 it from the rest of the sentence. As accent 
distinguishes one syllable in a word, so emphasis distinguishes 
one word in a sentence. 

702. On the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pro 
nunciation. If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only will dis- 
course be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning often left ambigu* 
ous. If the emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound k,s 
meaning wholly. v 

703. To give a common instance: such a simple question as this, "Do 
you ride to town to-day ?" is capable of no fewer than four different ac- 
ceptations, according as the emphasis is differently placed on the words. 
If it be pronounced thus: " Do you ride to town to-day?" the answer may 
naturally be, " No, we send a servant in our stead." If thus : " Do you ride 
to town today?" answer, "No, we intend to walk." " Do you ride to town 
to-day?" "No, we ride into the country." " Do you ride to town to-day 7 " 
li No, but we shall to-morrow." 

704. In like manner, in solemn discourse, the whole force and beauty of an 
eipression often depend on the emphatic word ; and we may present to the 
j»earers quite different views of the sentiment, by placing the emphasis 
differently. In the following words of our Saviour, observe in what 
different lights the thought is placed, according as the words are pro- 
nounced. "Judas, betrayest thou the Son of man with a kiss?" "Be 
trayest thou," makes the reproach turn on the infamy of treachery. " Be- 
trayest thou," makes it rest upon Judas's connexion with his master. " Be- 
trayest thou the Son of man," rests it upon our Saviour's personal charac- 
ter and eminence. " Betrayest thou the Son of man with a kiss ?" turns it 
upon his prostituting the signal of peace and friendship, to the purpose of 
iestruction. 

705. The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a question ; as, " Wh* 
14* L 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

•aid so ?" •■• When will he come ?" " What shall I do ? " Whither shau J 
go ?" "TFAy dost thou weep ?" And when two words are set in contrast, 
or in opposition to one another, they are both emphatic ; as, " He is the 
tyrant, not the father of his people ;" " His subjects fear him, but they do 
lot love him." 

706. Some sentences are so full and comprehensive, that almost every 
word is emphatical : as, " Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods and plains:" 
sr, as that emphatic expostulation in the prophecy o r Ezekiel, " Why will 
ye die ?" In the latter short sentence, every word is emphatical ,* and on 
whichever word we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, third 
or fourth, it strikes out a different sense, and opens a new subject of moving 
expostulation. 

707. Emphasis often falls not only on single words, in different parts of 
the same sentence, but it is frequently required to be continued, with a lit- 
tle variation, on two, and sometimes more words together. The following 
sentences exemplify both the parts of this position : " If you seek to make 
one rich, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." " The 
Mexican figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words: they ex- 
hibit images to the eye, not ideas to the understanding. 

708. As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it 
more distinguished by the ear than the rest ; so emphasis ennobles the 
word to which it belongs, and presents it in a stronger light to the under- 
standing. Were there no accents, words would be resolved into their origi- 
nal syllables; were there no emphasis, sentences would be resolved into 
their original words ; and, in this case, the hearer would be under the pain- 
ful necessity first, of making out the words, and afterward, their meaning. 

709. Emphasis changes, in particular cases, the seat of the 
accent. This is demonstrable from the following examples: 
" He shall increase, but I shall decrease," " There is a difference 
between giving and forgiving," " In this species of composition, 
possibility is much more essential than probability." In these 
examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on sylla- 
bles, to which it does not commonly belong. 

710. In order to acquire the proper management of the emphasis, th« 
great rule, and indeed the only rule, possible to be given, is, that the 
speaker or reader study to attain a just conception of the force and spirit 
of the sentiments which he is to pronounce. For, to lay the emphasis with 
exact propriety, is a constant exercise of good sense and attention. It is 
fir from being an inconsiderable attainment. It is one of the greatest trials 
tt a true and just taste : and must arise from feeling delicately ourselves, 
end from judging accurately of what is fittest to strike the feelings of others 

711 There is one er»*or, against which it is particularly proper to cau 



PROSODY. 163 

Cion the leirner : namely, that of multiplying empnatical word* too muck. 
It is only by a prudent reserve in the use of them, that we can give thern 
any weight, if they recur too often ; if a speaker or reader attempts to 
render every thing which he expresses of high importance, by a multitude 
of strong emphases, we soon learn to pay little regard to them. To crov^d 
every sentence with emphatical words, is like crowding all the pages of a 
book with italic characters, which, as to effect., is just the same as to use 
no such distinctions at all. 

QUANTITY. 

712. The quantity of a syllable is the time occupied in pro- 
nouncing it. 

713. Syllables are divided in this respect into two sorts, long 
and short. When the length of a syllable is marked, the long 
and short marks are always over the vowel, and not over any of 
the consonants ; as, boldness. A long syllable requires double 
the time of a short one in pronunciation; as, mate, mat; note, 
not 

714. A syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; as, 
14 Fall, bale, mood, house, feature.'' 

715. A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; 
as, " ant, bonnet, hunger/' 

716. Unaccented syllables are generally short; as. M acm/re, 
boldness, sinner." But to this rule there are many exceptions; 
as. -'also, exile, gangrene, umpire, foretaste, &c. 

717. All vowels under the principal accent, before the terminations mi, 
to, and 1077. preceded by a single consonant, are pronounced long : as, " Re- 
galia, folio, adhesion, explosion, confusion :" except the vowel i, which in 
that situation is short : as. " Militia, punctilio, decision, contrition." Ths 
only exceptions to this rule seem to be, " Discretion, battalion, national, 
and rational." 

71S. All the vowels that immediately precede the terminations, iiy and 
etu, are pronounced long : as, " Deity, piety, spontaneity." But if one con- 
sonant precedes these two terminations, every preceding accented vowel 
is short : except u. and the a in "security, and rarity:" a?, M Polarity, se- 
verity, divinity, curiosity: — impunity." Even u before two consonants con 
tracts itself: as, ■ Curvity, taciturnity." &c 

719. Vowels under the principal accent, before the terminations ic and 
icah preceded by a single consonant, are pronounced short ; thus, " Satanic, 
pathetic, elliptic harmonic, fanatical, poetical, levitical, canonical:" except* 
*' Tunic, runic, cubic, musical, cubical," <fcc. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

720 The tows in the antepenultimate syllable of words, with the fol 
lowing terminations, is always pronounced short. 

loquy : as, obloquy. parous: as, oviparous. 

strophe: as, apostrophe. cracy : as, aristocracy. 

meter: as, barometer. gony : as, cosmogony. 

gonal: as, diagonal. phony: as, symphony. 

vorous : as, carnivorous. iiomy : as, astronomy. 

ferous: as, somniferous. tomy: as, anatomy. 

fiuous: as, superfluous. palhy : as, antipathy. 

fluent: as, mellifluent. 

PAUSES. 

721. Pauses are of three kinds: first, emphatical pauses; 
secondly, sudi as mark the distinctions of the sense ; and lastly, 
poetical pauses. 

722. An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of 
peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention. 
Sometimes, before such a thing is said, we usher it in with a pause of this 
nature. Such pauses have the same effect as a strong emphasis, and are 
subject to the same rules, especially to the caution just now given, of not 
repeating them too frequently. For as they excite uncommon attention, 
and of course raise expectation, if the importance of the matter is no! 
fully answerable to such expectation, they occasion disappointment and 
disgust. 

723. But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to marl 
the divisions of the sense, and at the same to allow the speaker to draw his 
breath ; and the proper and delicate adjustment of such pauses, is one of 
the most nice and difficult articles of delivery. In all reading, and public 
speaking, the management of the breath requires a good deal of care, so 
as not to oblige us to divide words from one another, which have so inti- 
mate a connexion, that they ought to be pronounced with the same breath, 
and without the least separation. Many sentences are miserably mangled, 
and the force of the emphasis totally lost, by the divisions being made in 
the wrong place. To avoid this, every one, while he is speaking, or read- 
ing, should be very careful to provide a full supply of breath for what he 
is to utter. It is a great mistake to imagine, that the breath must be drawn 
only at the end of a period, when the voice is allowed to fall. It may 
easily be gathered at the intervals of the period, when the voice is only 
suspended for a moment; and, by this management, one may always have 
a sufficient stock for carrying on the longest sentence, without improper 
interruptions. 

724 Pauses in reading and public discourse must be formed upon the 
manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary sensible conversation 



PROSODY. 165 

md not upon the stiff artificial manner which we acquire, from reading 
books according to the common punctuation. It will by no means be suf- 
ficient to attend to the points used in printing ; for these are far from 
marking all the pauses which ought to be made in speaking. A mechani 
cal attention to these resting-places, has perhaps been one cause of mono- 
tony, by leading the reader to a similar tone at every stop, and a uniform 
cadence at every period. The primary use of points is, to assist the reader 
in discerning the grammatical construction ; and it is only as a secondary 
object, that they regulate his pronunciation. 

725. To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only be 
made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper tone of voice, 
by which the nature of these pauses is intimated : much more than by the 
length of them, which can seldom be exactly measured. Sometimes it is 
only a slight and simple suspension of voice that is proper; sometimes a 
degree of cadence in the voice is required ; and sometimes that peculiar 
tone and cadence which denote the sentence to be finished. In all these 
cases, we are to regulate ourselves, by attending to the manner in which 
nature teaches us to speak, when engaged in real and earnest discourse with 
others. 

726. It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should be used when 
the sense is incomplete; and the closing pause when it is finished. But 
there are phrases, in which, though the sense is not completed, the voice 
takes the closing, rather than the suspending pause; and others, in which 
the sentence finishes by the pause of suspension. 

727. The closing pause must not be confounded with that fall of the 
voice, or cadence, with which many readers uniformly finish a sentence. 
Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy than this habit. The 
tones and inflections of the voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be 
diversified, according to the general nature of the discourse, and the par- 
ticular construction and meaning of the sentence. In plain narrative, and 
especially in argumentation, a small attention to the manner in which we 
relate a fact, or maintain an argument in conversation, will show, that it is 
frequently more proper to raise the voice, than to let it fall, at the end of 
a sentence. Some sentences are so constructed, that the last words re- 
quire a stronger emphasis than any of the preceding; while others admit 
of being closed with a soft and gentle sound. Where there is nothing in 
the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an 
easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper. And 
m pathetic pieces, especially those of the plaintive, tender, or solemn kind. 
the tone of the passion will often require a still greater cadence of the 
voice. The best method of correcting a uniform cadence, is frequently to 
read select sentences, in which the style is pointed, and in wnich antitheses 
are frequently introduced; and argumentative pieces, or such as abound 
with interrogatives, or earnest exclamation. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

728. Foetiozl pauses are of two kinds; the final pause at the end of each 
line, and the cessural pause near the middle of the line. 

729. in reading blank verse, where there is no help from rhyme, the 
c.ose of each Ane should he made sensible to the ear, but without any ele- 
vation or degression of the voice. The termination of the line should be 
marked oaiy by such a slight suspension of sound as may distinguish Jis 
passage from one line to another without injuring the sense. 

730. in reading a lin^ Df eight, ten, or twelve syllables, a decided pause 
is found necessary somewhere near the middle of the line. This is called 
the cessural pause, and is generally at the end of the fourth, fifth, or sixth 
syllable. 

TONE. 

731. Tone is that quality of tiie voice by which.it is expressive 
of emotion. The tones are consequently as various as are the 
emotions of the mind, 

732. The best, and in fact the only general rule for the tone, is to attend 
carefully to the meaning of the author, and endeavour to feel the proper 
emot'on. If the emotion is felt, the tone will follow as naturally as the 
change **s the features. No man utters Tear, hope, joy, sorrow, anger, ad- 
miratioi &c, in the same tone of voice. In passing, however, from one 
tone to a» ither, the voice is inflected, so to speak, up and down. These in- 
flections are capable of being reduced to certain practical rules, which may 
be found in any good work on elocution. One general remark, however, 
may be made here in regard to them, which is this : The violent emotions, 
are, for the most part, expressed by a rising inflection of the voice, and the 
gentle emotions by a falling inflection. 

FIGURES. 

733. A figure in language is some deviation from the usual mode of 
speech. This deviation may be in the form of a word, and then it relates 
to Orthography and Etymology ; it may be in its construction with the other 
words of a sentence, and then it relates to Syntax; it may be in the mean' 
ing Gf a word, and then it relates to Rhetoric; and as figures of all kinds 
are more common in poetry than elsewhere, the whole subject cannot be 
considered as unconnected with Prosody. The reason for discussing the 
gubject in this part of the book, has already been assigned (617). I need 
only add here, that in whatever part of grammar it is considered, it is desira- 
ble that the whole subject should be presented at once, and not in detached 
portions. 

FIGURES OF ORT** GRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY. 

734. A figure of Orthography or Etymology is some deviation 



PROSODY. 167 

from the usua ] form of a word. The figures of this kind are 
eight ; Aphatresis, Syncope, Apocope, Prosthesis, Paragoge t 
Syvtceresis, Di&resis, and Tmesis. 

735 Ap\(Bresis takes away ? Vtter or syllable from the he* 
ginning cf a word; as, 'gun, for began. 

736. Syncope rejects a letter or syllable from the middle of & 
word ; as, lov'd for loved ; se y nnight for sevennight. 

737. Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end ; as 
th? for the ; morn for morning ; scant fur scanty. 

738. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a 
*7ord ; as, enchain, dispart, for chain, part. 

739. Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end; as, 
awaken for awake. 

740. Synceresis is the contraction of two vowels or of two 
syllables into one ; as ie in alienate, pronounced as if written 
Al-ye-nate. Two words also are frequently contracted into one ; 
as, "FYs for it is ; Hwas for it was; we'll, for ice will. 

741. Diairesis is the division of one syllable into two, by plac- 
ing the mark •■ over the latter of two vowels ; as, in zoology 
It seldom occurs in English. 

742. Tmesis separates a compound word by putting a word 
between ; as, " To God ivard," that is, " Toward God." 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

743. A figure of Syntax is some deviation from the ordinary 
construction of a word. The figures of this kind are usually 
reckoned four; Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enallage, and Hyperbaton. 

744. Ellipsis is the omission of w 7 ords necessary to supply the 
regular or full construction; as, "Reading makes a full man; 
conversation [makes] a ready man ; and writing [makes] an 
exact man." 

745. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, " I went 
home full of a great many serious reflections." Here the words 
a great many must be cancelled, as unnecessary. So, in the 
phrases " this here" " that there" the words here and there must 
be omitted. 

746. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another* 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and is confined to poetry ; as, " Slav rises merit, when by 
poverty depressed. " 

747. Hyperhaton is the transposition of words; as, "Come, 
nymph demure." It frequently imparts energy to a sentence, 
Qj;d is very common in poetry. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

748. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the proper and 
literal meaning of a word or phrase. The figures of this kind 
are very numerous. It is impracticable here to give more than 
an enumeration of the principal ones, with a brief illustration of 
each. 

749. The following are the principal Figures of Rhetoric: 
Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Antithesis, Allusion, Hyperbole, 
Irony, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Apostrophe, In- 
terrogation, Exclamation, Vision, and Climax. 

750. A Simile is a formal comparison between two objects, 
expressed by the words like or as. Thus, we can say of a horse, 
" He is as swift as the ivind ;" and of a man, " He is asfrm as 
a rock" 

751. A Metaphor expresses a resemblance between two ob- 
jects without the sign of comparison like or as; thus, "Thy 
word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path." A metaphor 
implies a comparison, and differs from a simile only inform, the 
sign of comparison being omitted. Thus, when I say, "A hero 
is like a lion," I use a simile, but when I say, " A hero is a lion," 
I employ a metaphor. 

752. An Allegory is a continued metaphor, representing one 
subject by another which is analogous to it. The subject thus 
represented is not formally mentioned, but will be easily dis- 
covered by reflection. 

753. The following from the 80th Psalm is a beautiful allegory, in which 
Lie Jewish nation is represented under the symbol of a vine. "Thou hast 
brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it 
Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause it to take deep root, and 
it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it; and the 
boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. It sent out its boughs into the 
sea, and its branches into the river. Why hast thou broken down its hedgei 



PKOSODY. 169 

so that all they who pass by the way do pluck it? The boar out of th* 
wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it." 

754. An Antithesis is a contrast or opposition between t\r* 
objects, by which they are both made to appear in a stronger 
light; as. " Temperance leads to happiness, intemperance to 
misery." 

755. An Allusion is a figure by which some word or phrase 
in a sentence recalls to our mind either some well-known fac; 
in history, or fable in mythology, or the sentiments of some dis- 
tinguished writer. 

Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allu- 
sion to the well-known fable of Cadmus's sowing dragon's teeth : — " Every 
day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant, the Carnatic is a country 
that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever. They 
think they a-e talking to innocents, who believe that by the sowing of dra- 
gon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made." 

756. A Hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater 
or less, better or worse, than they are in reality; thus, David, 
speaking of Saul and Jonathan, says, " They were swifter than 
eagles^ they were stronger than lions." 

757. Irony is a figure by which we express ourselves in a 
manner contrary to our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, 
but to add force to our observations. Thus, the prophet Elijah, 
in challenging the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their 
deity, ironically says, "Cry aloud, for he is a god ; either he ia 
talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradventure 
he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 

758. A Metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for 
the effect, or the effect for the cause, the container for the thing 
contained, the sign for the thing signified. Thus, 1. The cause 
for the effect, or the author for his works; as, "lam reading 
Virgil ;" that is, his ido; ks. — 2. The effect for the cause ; as, 
4 Grey hairs should be respected ;" that is, old age. 3. Tho 
container for the thing contained ; as, " The kettle boils," mean- 
ing the water. — 4. The sign for the thing signified; as, "He 
assumes the sceptre ; that is, " He assumes the sovereignty." 

759. A Synecdoche is a figure by which the whole is put foi 
a part, or a part for the whole, a definite for an indefinite nunv 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

her, &c; as, "Man returns to the dust," meaning only his body , 
"He earns his bread" meaning all the necessaries of life. 

760. Personification or Prosopopeia is that figure by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, " TiiP 
thirsty ground ; " The angry ocean ;" " The mountains sate 
Thee, O Lord, and they trembled." 

761. An Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject of dis- 
course, to address some other person or thing; as, " It advances 
and with menacing aspect slides into the heart of the city. 
my country ! ah ! Ilium, the habitation of the gods /" Person 
ification and apostrophe so nearly coincide, that they are fre- 
quently confounded. The former, however, consists in giving 
life to inanimate objects, and the latter in abruptly addressing 
objects thus animated, or persons that are dead or absent. 

662. An Interrogation is used literally to ask a question ; but 
figuratively, it is employed, when the passions are greatly moved, 
to affirm or deny more strongly. Thus, " The Lord is not a man 
that he should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. 
Hath he said it ! and shall he not do it 1 Hath he spoken it ? 
and shall he not make it good ?" 

763. Exclamation is used to express agitated feeling, admira- 
tion, wonder, surprise, anger, joy, &c; thus, " O the depth of the 
riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God !" 

764. Vision is a figure used only in animated and dignified 
compositions, when, instead of relating something that is past or 
future, we employ the present tense, and describe it as actually 
passing before our eyes. Thus, Cicero, in his fourth oration 
against Catiline, says, " I seem to myself to behold this city, the 
ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly 
involved in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered 
heaps of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of their ruined 
country." 

765. Climax is a figure in which a succession of ideas is 
given continually increasing in importance, until the last, which 
is meant to be the most important and striking of all ; thus, 
♦'There is no enjoyment of property without government; no 
government without a magistrate ; no magistrate without obedi- 
ence ; and no obedience where every one acts as he pleases." 



PROSODY. 171 

VERSIFICATION. 

766. Versification is the arrangement of words into 
poetical lines or verses. 

VERSES. 

767. A poetical line or verse consists of a certain number of 
accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to fixed 
rules. It was originally called verse, from the Latin verto, to 
turn, because when we have finished one line we turn back to 
commence another. 

763. A couplet or distich consists of two lines or verses taken 
together, whether rhyming with each other or not ; a triplet, of 
three lines rhyming together. 

769. A stanza is a combination of several lines, varying in 
number according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a regular 
division of a poem or song. The word verse, which strictly 
means only a single line, is often incorrectly used for stanza. 

770. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one 
verse to the last sound of another. Verses which have this cor- 
respondence in the final sounds, are called rhyming verses, and 
the poetry so formed is sometimes called simply rhyme. 

771. Blank verse is the name given to that species of poetry 
which is without rhyme. 

FEET. 

772. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line or verse 
is divided. They are called feet, because by their aid the voice 
steps along., as it were, through the verse in a measured pace. 

773. It is necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement 
of the voice, should, in some manner, be distinguished from the others. 
This distinction was made among the ancient Romans, by dividing their 
syllables into long and short, and ascertaining their quantity, by an exact 
proportion of time in sounding them ; the long being to the short, as two 
to one; and the long syllables, being thus the more important, marked the 
movement. In English, syllables are divided into accented and unaccented . 
and the accented s)llables being as strongly distinguished from the unac 
eented, by the peculiar stress of the voice upon the*n, are equally capable 
of marking the movement, and pointing out the regular paces of the voice. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as the long syllables were by their quantity, among the Romans. When 
the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, they are exactly of the same 
nature as the ancient feet, and have the same just quantity in their sylla- 
bles So that, in this respect, we have all that the ancients had, and some* 
thing which they had not. We have in fact duplicates of each foot, ye* 
with such a difference as to fit them for different purposes, to be applied 
at our pleasure. In the examples which follow, the accented syllables are 
distinguished by the mark of a long syllable, and the unaccented by the 
mark of a short syllable. 

774. Scanning is dividing" a verse into its feet, in order tc 
ascertain whether the number and arrangement of the syllables 
are according to the laws of versification. A line, in which a 
syllable is wanting, is said to be catalectic; one which is com- 
plete, acataleetic \; one in which there is a redundant syllable, 
hyper catalectic or hyper meter. In saying that a verse is re- 
dundant or the opposite, it is not meant to express the idea that 
the verse is fault]}. On the contrary, these added or deficient 
syllables often contribute essentially to the beauty of the versi- 
fication. The grammarian's province is merely to adopt some 
convenient name by which to recall the fact. 

775. The feet used in English poetry are divided into eight 
kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three syllables. 

Feet of tico syllables. 

1. An Iambus w "; as, defend. 

2. A Trochee " v ; as, noble. 

3. A Spondee ; as, vain man. 

■ 4. A Pyrrhic M w ; as, on a (hill). 

Feet of three syllables. 

5. An Anapaest w , :v "; as, intercede. 

6. A Dactyl ~ v w ; as, virtuous. 

7. An Amphibrach w " w ; as, contentment. 

8. A Tribrach ° w w ; as, (nu)merable. 

Kinds of Verse. 
77G. The first two on each of these lists, namely, the Iambus 
Trochee, Anapczst, and Dactyl, are the principal feet. They 
are the only ones with which a piece of poetry may be wholly or 
m great part formed. The other four feet are chiefly used in con 
nexion with the ones first named, for the purpose of giving variety. 



PROSODY. 173 

777. The kind of verse to which any piece of poetry belongs, 
depends upon the kind of foot by which it is chiefly formed. 
Hence it is styled Iambic, Trochaic, Anapcestic. or Dactylic 
verse, according as the prevailing foot is an Iambus, a Trochee, 
an Anapaest or a Dactyl. 

778. Each of these kinds of verse is subdivided according to 
the number of feet or metres in a line. A line consisting of only 
one foot is called a Monometer ; of two feet, a Dimeter ; of 
three feet, a Trimeter ; of four feet, a Tetrameter ; of five feet, 
a Pentameter ; of six feet, a Hexameter ; and of seven feet, a 
Heptameter. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

779. Iambic Monometer. The shortest form of the English 
Iambic consists of an Iambus, with an additional short or unac- 
cented syllable ; as, 

Disdain | ing, 

Complain \ing, 

C6nsent\mg, 

Repent \ing. 
We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in 
stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the 
Amphibrach. 

780. Iambic Dimeter. The second form of our Iambic, is alsc 
too short to be continued through any great number of lines. It 
consists of two Iambuses. 

What place | is here ? 
What scenes | appear] 
To me | the rose 
No longjer glows. 
It sometimes takes an additional short or unaccented syllable ; 

Upon j a md\mt\din 
Beside | a fouvA\din. 
781 Iambic Trimeter. The third form consists of three lanv 
buses 

In places far | or near, 

Or fa|mous or | obscure, 
Where wholelsome is J the air, 
Or where | the most | impure. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It sometimes admits of an additional short or unaccented sella- 
ble: as, 

Our hearts | no long|er la.n\guish. 

782. Iambic Tetrameter. The fourth form is made up of / hw* 

Iambuses. w 

And may | at last | my wea'ry age 

FJnd out | the peace jful her|mitage. 

This measure is also varied by admitting an additional short or 

unaccented syllable at the end ; as, 

Or if | it be | thy will | and plea|swre, 
Direct | my plough | to find j a treafswre. 

783. Iambic Pentameter. The fifth species of English 1am- 
gic consists of Jive Iambuses. 

How loved, | how val|ued once, | avails | thee not, 
To whom | reia|ted, or | by whom | begot; 
A heap | of dust | alone | remains | of thee ; 
'Tis all | thou art, | and all | the proud | shall be. 

Be wise | to-day, | 'tis mad|ness to | defer; 
Next day | the fajtal prejcedent | will plead ; 
Thus on, | till wisjdom is | push'd out | of life. 

This is called the heroic measure. In its simplest form it 
consists of five Iambuses, but by the admission of other feet, as 
Trochees, Anapaests, &c, it is capable of many varieties. The 
following is made by adding a short or unaccented syllable ; 

Ten thousand glittering lamps | the skies | adornjmg*. 

784. Iambic Hexameter. The sixth form of our Iambic, is 
frequently called the Alexandrine measure. It consists of six 
[ambuses. 

For thou | art but | of dust ; | be humjble and | be wise. 
The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme; 
and when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agree- 
able variety. 

The seas | shall waste, | the skies | in smoke j decay, 
Rocks fall | to dust, | and mountains melt | away; 
But fix'd | his word, | his sav|ing power j remains : 
'Thy realm \for ev\er lists, \ thy 6 ion | M}s$i\ah reigns. 



PROSODY. 175 

785. Iambic Heptameter. The seventh and last form of out 
Iambic measure, is made up of seven Iambuses. 

The Lord | descend |ed from | above, | and bow'd | the heav^na 
high. 
This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now broken 
into two ; the first containing four feet, and the second three : 

When all | thy mer|cies, O | my God ! 

My ris|ing soul | surveys, 
Transported with | the view, | I'm lost 

In wonjder, love, | and praise. 

In this form it admits of an additional unaccented syllable aii 
the end of each odd line ; as, 

From Greenland's i]cy moimt\ains 

From Injdia's co|ral strand, 
Where Af | lie's sun'ny fountjams 
Roll down | their goldjen sand. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

786, Trochaic Monometer. The shortest Trochaic verse sa 
our language, consists of one Trochee and a long or accented 
syllable. 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used 
on serious occasions. 

787 Trochaic Dimeter. The second Englisn form of the 
Trochaic consists of two feet; and is likewise so brief, that it is 
rarely used for any very serious purpose. 

On the | mountain, 
By a | fountain. 

It sometimes contains two trochees, with an additional long ol 
accented syllable, as, 

In the | days of | old, 

Fables I plainly | told. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

788. Trochaic Trimeter. The third species consists of three 
trochees ; as, 

When our | hearts are | mourning : 

<u ?f three trochees, with an additional long or accented sylla- 
ble; as, 

Restless | mortals | toil for | nought; 

Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought ; 

Bliss a | native | of the | shy, 

Never | wanders. | Mortals, | try; 

There you | cannot | seek in | vain ; 

For to | seek her | is to | gain. 

789. Trochaic Tetrameter. The fourth Trochaic species con- 
sists of four trochees; as, 

Round us | roars the | tempest | louder. 

This form may take an additional long or accented syllable, as 

follows : 

Idle | after | dinner | in his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, j ruddy, | fat, and | fair. 

But this measure is very uncommon. 

790. Trochaic Pentameter. The fifth Trochaic species is 
likewise uncommon. It is composed of five trochees ; as, 

In the | dark and | green and | gloomy | valley, 
Satyrs | by the | brooklet | love to | dally. 
The same with an additional accented syllable; as, 

Where the | wood is | waving | green and | high, 
Fauns and | Dryads | watch the | starry ( sky. 

791. Trochaic Hexameter. The sixth form of the English 
Trochaic consists of six trochees ; as, 

On a | mountain, | stretch'd bejneath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow. 
This is the longest Trochaic verse that seems to have beep 
cultivated. 

ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

792. Anapcestic Monometer. The shortest anapaestic verse is 
a single anapaest; as, 



PROSODY. 177 

In a sweet 

Resonance, 
All their feet 

In the dance 
All the night 
Tinkled light. 
This measure is, however, often ambiguous ; for by laying ai? 
accent on the first, as well as the third syllable, we may gene- 
rally make it a trochaic. 

793. Anapcestic Dimeter. The next form of our Anapaestic 
verse, is made up of two Anapaests ; as, 

On a plain, | as he strode 
By the hermit's abode. 

The same with an additional short or unaccented syllable. 
On the road | by the val|^, 

As he wan|deVd lamentjmg*, 
To the green | of the fbr\tst, 
He return'd | him repent|iwg\ 

794. Anapcestic Trimeter. The third species consists of 
three Anapaests* 

ye woods, | spread your branchfes apace; 
To your deep|est recessjes I fly; 

1 would hide | with the beasts ] of the cliase; 
I would van|ish from evjery eye. 

This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in 
solemn and cheerful subjects. 

795. Anapcestic Tetrameter. The fourth kind of the Englisn 
Anaosestic consists of four Anapaests. 

May I gov[ern my pas|sions with abjsolute sway ; 
And grow wijser and bet|ter as life | wears away. 

This measure will admit of a short or unaccented syllable at 
the end ; as, 

On the warm | cheek of youth, | smiles and rolsesare blending- 

M 



178 ENGLISH GBAMMAK. 



DACTYLIC VERSE. 

796. Dactylic Monomcter. The shortest dact\ Le verse con- 
«ist P sf a single dactyl, as in the following: 

Fearfully 

Tearfully. 
The same with an additional accented syllable : 
Over a | mead 
Pricking his | steed. 

797. Dactylic Dimeter. This consists of two dactyls, as in 
the following : 

Free from sajtiety, 
Care, and anx|Iety ? 
Charms in va|rlety, 
Fall to his | share. 

The same with an additional accented syllable : 
" Cover'd with | snow was the | vale, 
Sad was the | shriek of the | gale, 
When, on the | night, woful | wail 
Rose to the | skies — to the | skies /" 

798. Dactylic Trimeter. This consists of three dactyls, as in 
*be following : 

Wearing a|way in his | youthfulness, 
Loveliness, | beauty and | truthfulness. 

The same with an additional accented syllable : ' 

" Time It has | pass'd, and the | lady Is | pale, — 
Pale as the | lily that | lolls on the | gale ; 
Weary and | worn, she has | waited for | years, 
Keeping her | grief ever | green with her | tears; 
Years will she | tarry, for | cold Is the | clay 
FeiCving the | fbrm of her | Everard | Grey." 

Everard Gray. 

799. The Dactylic Tetrameter, Pentameter, and Hexameter, 
with the additional or hypermeter syllable, are all found combined 
in the following extraordinary specimen of versification. For this, 



PROSODY. 179 

as well as for those quoted in the two preceding" paragraphs, the 
author is indebted to the pen of Henry B. Hirst, Esq., of Phila- 
delphia. It will be observed, that in each stanza, the first two 
lines are tetrameters, the third pentameters, and the fourth hexa- 
meters. This is the only specimen of Dactylic hexameter or even 
pentameter verse that the author recollects to have seen. 

LAMENT OF ADAM. 

Glad was our | meeting : thy | glittering | bosom I j heard, 
Beating on | mine, like the | heart of a | timorous | bird; 
Bright were thine | eyes as the | stars, and their j glances 

were | radiant as | gleams 
Falling from | eyes of the | angels, when | singing by | Eden's 

pur | piireal j streams. 

" Happy as | seraphs were | we, for we | wandeVd a | lone, 
Trembling with j passionate ' thrills, when the I twilight had | 

flown : 
Even the | echo was | silent: our | kisses and j whispers of | 

love 
Languished un | heard and un I known, like the | breath of the | 

blossoming | buds of the j grove. 

"Life hath its | pleasures, but | fading are | they as the | 

flowers : 
Sin hath its | sorrows, and | sadly we | turn'd from those , 

bowers : 
Bright were the | angels be | hind with their | falchions of ( 

heavenly | flame ! 
Dark was the | desolate | desert be | fore us, and | darker 

the | depth of our | shame /" 

800. Dactylic verse seems to have been the least cultivated of 
all kinds of English versification. This is the more surprising 
on account of the eminent beauty of which it is susceptible* «.s 
well as the facility for its adoption furnished in the immense 
cumber of dactyls with which the language abounds. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



MIXED VERSES. 

801. English verses generally consist of feet all of one kind, or of ono 
kind with an additional syllable. In this they differ materially from the 
verses of the ancients, in which f^et of different kinds were found mixed 
together in the same line. For instance, the most common of all theii 
verses, the Latin and Greek hexameter, corresponding in its uses to our 
heroic pentameter, consisted of dactyls and spondees combined to suit the 
varying character of the sense; a preponderance of dactyls giving a rapid 
movement to the verse, suited to light, gay, or beautiful subjects; and a 
preponderance of spondees, on the contrary, making the movement of the 
verse slow and solemn. In English verse, this combination of different feet 
in the same line, has been seldom attempted. In fact, no whole poem of 
any considerable size, so far as the author is aware, has been constructed 
of mixed lines throughout. Most of the examples that exist are isolated 
lines in poems that are otherwise purely Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic, o? 
Dactylic. A Spondeo-Dactylic poztn, for instance, does not exist in Eng- 
lish literature, although there may be examples of Spondeo-Dactylic verses. 
A few specimens of mixed verses will now be given. 

802. The following celebrated lines, from Childe Harold, con- 
tain an example of a Trochee ( ~ w ) and a Spondee ( ) both 
occurring- in one line of an Iambic ( w " ) poem : 

Fax j along 
From peak j to peak, | the rat|tling crags | among, 
Leaps the \ live thun\6er ! not | from one j lone cloud, &c. 
The lines which follow, contain a Trochee ( " w ) in a verse 
otherwise purely Iambic ( w " ): 

Along | the rojsy east, j in gold [en pride, 
Soars the | aris|ing sun.| 

803. In the second of the lines which follow, which are in 
Iambic ( w "~ ) metre, occur a Pyrrhic ( v v ) and a Spondee ( ) 

Yet lovejly in | your strength, | as is | the light 
Of a | dark eye | in womjan! Far | along 
From peak to peak, &c. . 
The following is another example of the same: 
That on \ weak wings | from far | pursues | your flight. 

804. The following is an example of Hexameter verse, com 
pcaed of dactyls ( " w " ) and spondees ( " " ) alternately : 



PROSODY. 181 

Green in the | wild wood | proudly the | tall tree j looks dfc 
the | brown plain. 

The next example is a pure Dactylic Hexameter. 
Over the | valley, with | speed like the | wind, all the | steeds 
were a | galloping. 

This will remind the scholar of Virgil's oft-quoted Hsxa* 
meter : 

Quadriipeldante pu]trem soni|tu quatit | ungula | campum, 

16 



APPENDIX. 



In making even an elementary text-book, an Author finds it 
necessary, for the satisfaction of teachers and of more advanced 
scholars, sometimes to enter briefly upon discussions of disputed 
points, and to make remarks more or less extended in explana- 
tion and defence of his methods and definitions. Such remarks 
and discussions, if inserted in the body of the book, even though 
distinguished from the main text by a difference of type, are 
found to confuse the minds of beginners. I have judged it 
best, therefore, in preparing a new edition o£,nry book, to place 
all matter of this kind at the end of the volume, in the form of 
an Appendix, 

1. True Ground of the Classification of the Letters. 
When the mouth, throat, and other organs of speech are opened in a 
particular position, and the voice is allowed to flow out in a continuous 
and uniform current, without any change in the position of the organs, 
the sound so formed is called a Vowel. In this manner we may pro- 
long the sound of a indefinitely, or until out of breath. If, while the 
voice is thus issuing from the mouth, the current of sound is inter- 
rupted by a partial compression of the organs, the sound becomes a 
Semt-vowel. Thus, while prolonging the sound of a, if we press the 
tongue upon the upper part of the mouth, but allow the voice still to 
proceed, the sound becomes that of the letter I. If this compression 
becomes so great as actually to close the organs, the sound ceases, and 
in the very act of ceasing gives rise to a Mute. Thus, in the case just 
mentioned, if instead of pressing the tongue upon the roof of the mouth, 
we press it against the teeth, and entirely stop the passage of the voice, 
the actual termination of the sound is that indicated by the letter f. 
This process may be reversed. The letter t may be formed first and 
the vowel follow it, as in pronouncing the syllable ta. In this case the 
mute is the very beginning of sound. According to this explanation, 

(183) 



184 APPENDIX. 

then, as stated in the text, a Mute is merely the commencement or the 
termination of the sound, on opening or closing the organs; a Semi- 
vowel is a partial interruption or modification of the sound, caused by 
changing the position of the organs during utterance; and a Vowel is 
the very sound itself prolonged without change. (Page 8.) 

2. Improper Diphthongs. 
In giving examples of the sounds of the different letters, the impro- 
per diphthongs are omitted. In every improper diphthong, one of the 
vowels is not sounded at all, and may therefore be disregarded. The 
sound of tjie other vowel will be found in its proper place in the list of 
the vowel sounds. The same remark is applicable to the triphthongs. 
A few examples of foreign sounds of the letters are also omitted, as of 
an in hautboy, &c. (Page 10.) 

3. On doubling the final L. 
The words, in regard to which there is a dispute respecting the 
doubling of the final I, are the derivatives of the following : apparel, 
bevel, bowel, cancel, carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, 
drivel, duel, embowel, enamel, empanel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, 
handsel, hatchel, imperil, jewel, kennel, label, level, libel, marshal, marvel, 
model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, p>ommcl, quarrel, ravel, revel, 
rival, rowel, shovel, snrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, unravel. 
There is the same dispute respecting the derivatives of bias, and 
worship. (Page 15.) 

4. Origin and Meaning of the Articles. 

A or an was originally ae, ane, or one. In course of time it became 
abbreviated into its present form, and by a usage not uncommon in the 
history of language, the short form acquired a shade of meaning dif- 
ferent from the long form, though both were originally precisely the 
same. The difference is this. One expresses the idea of unity with 
emphasis. A expresses the same idea, only without emphasis. This 
will be understood at once by an example. " Can one man carry this 
weight?" "No, but two could." "Can a man carry this weight ?" 
"No, but a horse could." The idea of unity is expressed in both of 
these examples ; but in the former it is emphatic, in the latter it is not. 
In the former, one is the leading idea, as distinguished from two or 
more ,* in the latter, man is the leading idea, as distinguished from horse 
or other animal. 

A similar remark may be made in regard to the. The word the was 
originally thaet or that. In course of time it became abbreviated, and 
the short form acquired, in usage, a shade of meaning different from 
the original long one. That is demonstrative with emphasis \ the is 
demonstrative without emphasis. 



APPENDIX. 185 

That these words have acquired a real difference in meaning as well 
as form, is evident. 1. Because a and the cannot stand without a noun, 
one and that can. Thus, I can say, * Give me one, give me thai," but 
I cannot say, " Give me a, give me the." 2. Because a and the do not 
necessarily contradistinguish from two and this, as one and that do. 
3. Because in many cases they are evidently not interchangeable. 
"A kingdom for a horse," and "one kingdom for one horse," express 
different ideas. " The revolution/' means, in this country, " the Ameri- 
can" revolution. " That revolution" may or may not mean so. 

In considering the article as forming a separate part of speech, I 
have acted in obedience to the immemorial usage of all languages. 
The proper rank of a seems to be with the indefinite pronouns, and that 
of the with the demonstrative pronouns. If Grammar were a science 
to be written anew, very likely both the article and the adjective pro- 
nouns would be called, as in their nature they truly are, Adjectives. 
Even in that case, however, it is to be remarked, not so much would be 
gained in the way of simplification as some persons have supposed. 
We should require in that case a subdivision of adjectives, correspond- 
ing to the present subdivision of the adjective pronouns, for these words 
have differences of meaning and construction, and, in those languages 
which admit of changes of termination, differences also of form, that 
clearly distinguish them, both from ordinary adjectives, and from each 
other. (Page 18.) 

5. Philosophical Character of the English in regard to 

Gender. 
The English is, perhaps, the most philosophical of all languages in 
regard to gender. In other languages things without life are generally 
masculine, feminine, or neuter, according to their terminations, and 
without reference to sex or the absence of it. But in English, gender 
is strictly a distinction of sex, things without sex being invariably 
neuter. In consequence of this peculiarity, the language is capable of 
a rhetorical beauty, which is unknown in other languages. Personifi- 
cation (which means, considering inanimate objects as persons, endowed 
with life) is, in its ordinary form, one of the boldest figures of rhetoric, 
and can be used with propriety only in the highest flights of poetry 
and oratory. There is, however, a lower kind of personification which 
can be used in English, and frequently with great beauty. When, for 
instance, it is desirable to raise the style slightly above the tenor of 
prose composition, it can often be done with the greatest ease, simply 
by applying "he" and "she" to neuter nouns. This indirect kind of 
personification at once animates and enlivens the style, without render- 
ing it passionate or overwrought. In this way we. say of the earth, 
"she is fruitful," of the sun, "he has risen in his strength," of time, 
"he flies on rapid wings," &a. 

When this animated kind of phraseology is used, it is impossible to 
16* 



186 APPENDIX. 

give any uniform rule for determining what nouns should be considered 
as masculine and what feminine. In general, however, in such cases, 
nouns become masculine, which indicate superior strength, energy, or 
firmness. Those on the contrary are feminine which indicate weakness 
or timidity, or which are of a passive rather than an active nature. 
Examples of those which are considered masculine are, sun, time, death, 
love, &c. Examples of feminines are, moon, earth, church, nature, &c. 
In accordance with this, animals are sometimes regarded as mascu- 
line or feminine, not from their sex, but from the masculine or feminine 
qualities of the tribe to which they belong. Thus we say : " The lion 
meets his foe boldly." " The hare leaps from her covert." (Page 23.) 

6. Riches and Alms. 
The s at the end of these words is not the s of the plural formation, 
but is a part of the original word. Thus, riches is derived from the 
French richesse, and according to its derivation should properly be 
singular. But usage has given it both a singular and a plural meaning, 
as stated in the text. Alms, however, from almesse, retains its original 
meaning, and is always singular. (Page 28.) 

7. The First Person of Nouns. 
The question whether nouns are really ever used in the first person, 
is not a point perhaps of much practical importance. The following 
sentences, however, seem to be examples of nouns in the first person : — 
" The Elder unto the elect lady and her children, whom / love," &c. — 
John, ii. 1. "The Elder unto the well-beloved Gaius, whom /love," 
&c. — John, iii. 1. "Paul, a servant, &c, to Titus, mine own son," &c. 
In these examples, the pronouns / and mine indicate the person of 
Elder and Paul, just as clearly, and by just the same kind of evidence 
that the pronoun her indicates the gender of the word lady. (Page 28.) 

8. Origin of the Possessive. 
The apostrophe and s are an abbreviation, not of his as has been 
sometimes asserted, but of the Saxon genitive es or is. Thus, " the 
king's crown" was originally "the kingis crown." This form is some- 
times explained by resolving it into " the king his crown," and certain 
Hebraisms found in the English version of the Scriptures seem to 
countenance such a hypothesis. But the facts are against it. Besides, 
"queen's" could not be resolved into "queen hers," "children's" into 
"children theirs/' &c. (Page 30.) 

9. The true difference between the Noun and the Adjective. 
± Some grammarians have objected to making adjectives a separate 
part of speech, and have classed them under the head of nouns, because 
they often, if not always, denote some substance, quality, or property, 



APPENDIX. 187 

just as truly as nouns do. Thus, "brazen tube" means "a tube made 
of brass." The adjective brazen denotes the same substance that the 
noun brass does. In like manner, waxen implies the substance wax, 
golden implies the substance gold, ha, d the quality hardness. The 
objection is founded in a mistaken view of the true nature of the noun. 
That which distinguishes the noun from the other parts of speech, is 
not that it expresses an idea of some substance, and the others do not. 
On the contrary, every part of speech, every word in fact, necessarily 
expresses the idea of substance of some kind. Thus, "above" and 
"below" convey the idea of some circumstance, quality, or thing, just 
as much as the words "top" and "bottom." In the words person, 
personal, personally, personify ; thought, thoughtful, thoughtfully, thinks, 
&c, we have the same substantive idea or thing running through a 
whole series of words, each of which is a different part of speech. 
The noun then is distinguished from the other parts of speech, not 
from its expressing some substantive idea, but from its being the name 
of that idea. If we speak or think of the name of that idea, we use 
a noun. If we connect that idea with any noun as one of its quali- 
ties, accidents, or attributes, but without affirmation, it is an adjective. 
For further illustrations of this point, see the remarks upon the verb, 
Appendix 15. (Page 32.) 

10. The Degrees op Comparison. 
Most adjectives express qualities which are capable of existing in 
different degrees. Thus, a thing may not -only be black, but may be 
blacker than some other thing, or the blackest of all things, or may be 
only blackish, that is, somewhat black, or may be very black, or by far 
the blackest of the things now under consideration, &c. As the degrees 
in which such a quality may exist are infinite, so there is an almost 
infinite number of modes, through circumlocutions and other contriv- 
ances of speech, of expressing these degrees. In other words, the 
degrees of comparison may be multiplied to almost any extent. Three 
of these, however, are so much more common than the rest, that the 
name is restricted to them. (Page 33.) 

11. The True Nature of the Pronoun. 
There is, I believe, some misapprehension in regard to the precise 
sense in which a pronoun stands instead of a noun. Some writers seem 
to entertain the opinion that a noun and its pronoun are strictly inter- 
changeable words, and that not only is the latter a substitute for the 
former, but that the former may, in every case, be restored to its sup- 
posed original place in the sentence. This mistake originated probably 
from confining the attention to examples taken from the third person, 
where the noun may often, though very inelegantly, take the place of 
the pronoun which represents it. Thus, instead of " The man is happy 
because he is benevolent," we may say, " The man is happy, because 



188 APPENDIX. 

the man is benevolent." But, when Nathan says to David, " Thou art 
the man/' David cannot be substituted for thou without destroying the 
sense. To understand precisely in what sense a pronoun is used instead 
of a noun, it should be recollected that a noun has, in the first place, a 
meaning of its own, independently of its connection with the other words 
in the sentence. Thus, the word "book," as soon as uttered, conveys to 
the mind a certain idea. In addition to this idea, thus contained in the 
word itself, a noun is capable of conveying to the mind at the same 
time, certain other ideas in consequence of its offices, as a possessor, as 
the subject or object of the verb, as indicating some relation to the 
speaker, or some distinction of sex, &c. Now, the pronoun discharges 
this latter class of duties in place of the noun, and often where the 
noun itself could not be used for the purpose. The pronoun is the 
subject of the verb, the object of the verb, indicates the speaker, the 
person spoken to, the person spoken of, distinguishes sex, &c, just as 
the noun would do in its place. At the same time, the noun cannot 
always, nor even often, replace the pronoun which refers to it. (Page 
35.) 

12. The Classification of the Pronouns. 
The Personal Pronouns express the idea of Person by themselves, 
and independently of their connection with the other words in a sentence. 
Thus, I, thou, he, convey the idea of person at once, as soon as uttered. 
This idea, so far as it is expressed by the relative pronouns, and by 
nouns, is conveyed, not by anything in the meaning of the words them- 
selves, but by means of their connection with other words. Thus, ivho, 
by itself, conveys no intimation of person ; but it becomes personal as 
soon as it is connected with an antecedent, as he who, thou who, man icho. 
A part of the adjective pronouns (the Demonstrative) express indeed 
the idea of person by their own proper meaning, in the same manner 
as the personal pronoun, but they also express an additional and more 
important idea, which sufficiently distinguishes them from the former 
class. Their demonstrative character is the predominating one, and 
gives them their name. In like manner the Relative pronouns are dis- 
tinguished from the other classes. Every pronoun, indeed, so far as it 
is a pronoun at all, necessarily relates to something. But this relation 
is not the leading and prominent idea in any except the Relative pro- 
nouns. In each class, it is the leading and prominent idea which gives 
name to the class, and not any property which it possesses exclusive of 
the rest. Thus, the leading idea in the Personal pronouns is the dis- 
tinction of person; in the Relative pronouns, the relation to the antece- 
dent; in the Adjective pronouns, the dependence of the word upon 
some noun in the manner of an adjective. (Page 35.) 

13. Gender of the Personal Pronouns. 
The fact that no separate forms for the masculine and feminine of 
the First and Second Persons have ever been invented, may be accounted 



APPENDIX. 189 

for perhaps by inquiring into the reason why gender itself was invented. 
Gender seems to be a contrivance to assist in distinguishing more 
clearly the person or thing that is the subject of discourse. Now in 
the first and second persons, this is unnecessary. The speaker, and 
the one spoken to, are present to the view, and by that very fact need 
nothing else to distinguish them. But the third person, that is, the 
thing spoken of, is or may be absent, and needs the distinction of 
gender to designate it more clearly. (Page 36.) 

14. Adjective Pronouns. 

The proper rank of that class of words, here called Adjective Pro- 
nouns, is a matter about which there is a good deal of difference of 
opinion. They have the construction of adjectives, being always con- 
nected with a noun, expressed or understood. At the same time, they 
are used without the noun, and instead of it, in such a way, and to so 
much greater an extent than ordinary adjectives, as to give them de- 
cidedly a Pronominal character. They seem in fact to hold a sort of 
middle position between adjectives and pronouns. Hence, they are 
called by some, Pronominal Adjectives ; by others, Adjective Pronouns. 
I adhere to the latter name, because it has been admitted into the 
grammars of almost all languages, ancient and modern, and because I 
deem any change of established nomenclature a serious evil, not to be 
incurred unless for the most urgent reasons. In this case, no substan- 
tial error seems likely to arise from classing those words under either 
head. The principal point for the learner, is to know which the words 
are, and to have some tolerably accurate name by which to call them. 
(Page 43.) 

15. The True Nature of the Verb. 

Amrmation is true of no other part of speech, and may be considered 
the distinguishing characteristic of the verb. The general idea, which 
in a verb is expressed in the form of an assertion, may be conceived 
of in various other forms, and so become successively different parts 
of speech. Thus, for instance, take the general idea of sleeping. If 
we think or speak of the name of this idea, it is a Noun, as, sleep. If 
the idea is connected with any subject as one of its accidents, qualities, 
or attributes, but without any affirmation, it is an Adjective, as, the 
sleepy boy. If the idea is affirmed or predicated of the subject of dis- 
course, it is a verb, as, the boy sleeps. The idea may be introduced as 
a modification of some other quality or attribute, and then it is an 
Adverb, as, the boy acts sleepily. In all these instances, the same 
general idea exists as a common substratum, or groundwork. That 
which distinguishes one part of speech from another, is not that one 
expresses some substantive idea and another does not (which is not 
true); but, an idea, when conceived and spoken of as the subject of 
discourse, is a Noun; when conceived and spoken of as an attribute or 
quality of some subject, is an Adjective; when affirmed or predicated, 



190 APPENDIX. 

is a Verb. The following, from the Latin, is a good example of the 
same general idea being conceived of under different forms and becom- 
ing successively different parts of speech : " Docere docilem facile est, ut 
docilitatis suae edat documentum, celeri apprehensione doctrines, fiatque 
vir cloctus, et sentiat docte." The distinction here insisted on is as old 
as Aristotle, and should not be lost sight of. See remarks upon the 
Adjective, Appendix 9. (Page 46.) 

16. The Names of the Tenses. 

" To take the Tenses, as they are commonly received, and endeavor 
to ascertain their nature and their differences, is a much more useful 
exercise, as well as more proper for a work of this kind, than to raise, 
as might easily be raised, new theories on the subject/' — Encyclopaedia 
Britannica. 

Much has been written both against the division of the tenses com- 
monly received, and against the names assigned to them. The tenses 
which have occasioned the principal difficulty are the Perfect and the 
Past, or, as it is commonly called, the Imperfect. The other four cor- 
respond to tenses having the same names in most other languages. 
But the perfect, and the so called imperfect, labor under the difficulty 
of being named from two Latin tenses to which they do not accurately 
correspond. The Latin perfect expresses the ideas both of the perfect 
and the imperfect in English. Thus, scripsi means both " I have 
written," and "I wrote." Both of these ideas are perfect, that is, they 
express something done and finished ; and the term imperfect or unfi- 
nished, as applied to one of them, is strikingly incorrect. Thus, 
" I wrote my letter yesterday," " God created the world," " Moses wrote 
the Pentateuch;" all these evidently express actions finished, or perfect. 
The Latin imperfect, on the contrary, expresses an idea strictly corre- 
sponding to its name. But, although this idea is not found in the 
regular form of the English tense " I wrote," it is expressed exactly 
by what is called the Progressive Form of that tense, viz., "I was 
writing." On this account some still retain the name as describing 
accurately one of the forms of the tense, though not the leading or 
principal form. The objection to such a course is that the term Imper- 
fect describes equally well the progressive form of every tense. Thus, 
I am writing, I have been writing, I shall be writing, &c, all express 
action incomplete or imperfect. 

By laying aside the term Imperfect, the principal objection to the 
term Perfect is obviated. The term is not indeed the most accurate 
that could be desired, but it is no longer rendered incomprehensible by 
being incongruously contrasted with the Imperfect. We no longer 
have two tenses, both expressing action equally finished and complete, 
and yet one called the Perfect, and the other the Imperfect. 

While, therefore, the term Perfect is retained for the reason assigned, 
and in conformity with the immemorial usage of all languages, it is 



APPENDIX. 191 

deemed necessary to ascertain and limit its meaning with as much pre- 
cision as may be. (Page 48.) 

17. The Tenses of the Subjunctive and Potential Moods. 

The Tenses in the Subjunctive and Potential moods are used with 
less precision than in the Indicative. This arises in part from the 
meaning of some of the auxiliaries and conjunctions, which modify the 
time expressed in the affirmation; and in par fr ~A'oni mere usage, of 
which no other account can be given, than that the particular form 
does in fact convey a certain idea of time. Still, in a majority of cases, 
the tenses of the Subjunctive and Potential moods express the same 
distinctions of time as the tenses of the same name in the Indicative. 
It has not been thought expedient, therefore, to change the names of 
the tenses, or to invent new names, to suit every change of meaning 
produced by custom or by particular combination of words, but to name 
the tense in every case by its form. Thus, in the sentence, " If I had 
the money, I would pay you," had undoubtedly expresses present time, 
not past; still, it has the form of the past, and should be called accord- 
ingly. (Page 51.) 

18. The English Participle. 
Many mistakes have arisen from supposing the English participles 
to correspond, more nearly than they in truth do, to the Latin parti- 
ciples. In Latin, excepting in deponent verbs, the present participle is 
alwa3 r s active, the perfect always passive. Hence, some grammarians 
assume the same to be always true in English. They take for granted 
that the participle in ing is essentially and necessarily active, and that 
the perfect is essentially and necessarily passive. Neither of these is 
true. The Perfect iDarticiple is extensively used in making the com- 
pound forms of the active voice. When we analyze one of these com- 
pound expressions, as for instance, he had concealed, we call had the 
auxiliary, and concealed the Perfect participle. The force of the par- 
ticiple in this combination is different from what it is when found in 
the passive voice, or when standing alone. Thus, in the sentence, 
" He had a dagger concealed under his cloak/' concealed is passive, 
signifying being concealed; but in the former combination, it goes to 
make up a form the force of which is active. This is obvious the 
moment we attempt to translate the two expressions into any language 
where the difference is distinguished by a difference of termination. 
Thus, in Latin, "He had concealed the dagger," would be " pugionem 
abdiderat ;" but, " He had the dagger concealed/' would be " pugionem 
abditum habebat." It should be remarked, however, that this parti- 
ciple in the active is only found in combination. Whenever it stands 
alone, to be parsed as a participle, it is passive. 

A usage similar in some respect prevails in regard to the Present 
participle in ing. When it stands by itself, as a participle, it is inva- 



192 APPENDIX. 

riably active. But in combination, in making what is called the Pro- 
gressive Form of the verb, it is not invariably active : as, in the phrase, 
"The house is building." I know the correctness of this mode of 
expression has lately been very much assailed, and an attempt, to some 
extent successful, has been made to introduce the form "is being built." 
But, in the first place, the old mode of expression is a well established 
usage of the language, being found in our best and most correct writers. 
Secondly, "is being built," does not convey the idea intended, namely, 
that of progressive action. "Is being," taken together, means simply 
" is," just as "is writing" means "writes;" therefore, "is being built," 
means " is built," a perfect and not a progressive action. Or, if " being 
built" be taken together, they signify an action complete, and the phrase 
means, as before, "the house is (exists) being built." Thirdly, the 
same reasoning which has led to the expression " is being built," would 
lead equally to such cumbersome forms as "was being built," "has 
been being built," "had been being built," "shall be being built," 
" shall have been being built," "might have been being built," &c. 
Fourthly, the same mode of proceeding, which requires us in this case 
to deny any force to usage, and to consider the termination ing always 
active, because it is generally so, would lead, if carried out, to still 
wider consequences. For instance, when we say, " The house is build- 
ing," the advocates of the new theory ask, "building what?" We 
might ask in turn, when-you say, "Wheat sells well," sells what? If 
usage allows us to say "Wheat sells at a dollar," in a sense that is not 
active, why may it not also allow us to say, " Wheat is selling at a 
dollar," in a sense that is not active ? (Page 52.) 

19. Reasons for Adopting the Classification of Transitive 
and Intransitive. 
There are two classes of verbs perfectly distinct from each other, 
viz. : Those which do, and those which do not govern an objective case. 
The terms active and neuter, formerly used to express this distinction, 
are now generally abandoned. A strong objection to them was, that 
many verbs govern an objective case in which it is at least doubtful 
whether any action, in the ordinary sense of that term, takes place ; 
while, on the contrary, a large proportion of the verbs called neuter, 
and which, by the definition, ought to express no action, do yet in fact 
express action in the highest degree, as, to run, to walk, to svrim, &c. 
Another and still stronger objection was that the terms active and 
neuter as applied to verbs, produced confusion and doubt about the 
distinctions of active and passive, as applied to Voice. It needs no 
argument to prove that I am struck is just as really a modification of to 
strike, as I have struck is; and yet, under the old classification of active, 
passive, and neuter, the pupil was taught to consider these forms as 
two verbs belonging to different classes. / have struck, for instance, 
was called an active verb; I am struck, a passive verb; and I walk, a 



APPENDIX. 193 

neuter verb. Under the present arrangement, the terms Active and 
Passive do not express a distinction of verbs, but of Voice. The active 
voice of a verb is distinguished from its passive voice, just as one of its 
moods or tenses is distinguished from any other mood or tense. There 
would seem to be no more reason for dividing verbs into active and 
passive verbs, than for dividing them into present verbs, past verbs, 
indicative verbs, potential verbs, <fec. 

It is indeed true that verbs may be divided into those which express 
action, and those which do not express action. But, if the line be 
drawn with accuracy, the number of the latter will be exceedingly 
small, including the verbs to be, to exist, and perhaps some few others ; 
and, besides, the distinction, when conceded, will be of no available use 
for any of the practical purposes of grammar. Some verbs will be 
found governing an objective case, in which it is difficult to perceive 
any decided action, while others expressing intense activity will be 
found without an objective case. 

The terms Transitive and Intransitive have been used, because in very 
many, perhaps a majority, of the verbs which take an objective case, 
some action may be conceived as passing from the agent to the object; 
as, James strikes the table. Here, the act of striking passes from the 
agent, James, to the object, which is the table. There are many cases, 
however, in which such a transition cannot readily be traced; as, he 
enjoys repose. Still, the terms seem the least objectionable that have 
yet been proposed, especially if limited by their definition to the classi- 
fication really meant, viz. : to verbs which do, and those which do 
not govern an objective case. In this sense, the distinction is one 
easily made, universally recognised, and of great practical importance, 
although the terms employed to express it are not as entirely accurate 
as could be desired. (Page 53.) 

20. Nature of the Auxiliaries. 
It would be a mistake to suppose, as is sometimes done, that the 
Auxiliaries are mere inventions, introduced into the language for the 
purpose of making out the necessary forms. There is abundant evi- 
dence that the auxiliaries were originally independent verbs, and that 
the verbs following the auxiliaries were in the infinitive mood, to 
being omitted. " To," indeed, as a sign of the Infinitive, was intro- 
duced into the language only in the later stages of its history. Origi- 
nally, "to" was never found in connection with the infinitive. Even 
now it is not so found after some verbs; as, "I bade him follow." 
Here, "follow" is recognised as being in the infinitive, just as much as 
" to follow" is in the sentence, " I told him to follow." So also "I saw 
him (to) follow," "They need not (to) follow," &c. The auxiliary 
"shall," meant, originally, "to be obliged." "I shall (to) write," 
meant, " I am obliged to write." So long as " shall" retained its 
original meaning and force, it was quite proper to parse "write" as 
17 N 



194 APPENDIX. 

being in the infinitive mood, as we do the verb "follow" in the previous 
examples. In like manner, all the compound tenses may be analyzed. 
This analysis, and the study of the proper force of the auxiliaries by 
themselves, is important as affording the best clue to the true meaning 
and use of the various moods and tenses. 

It would be an equal mistake on the other hand, because these com- 
pound forms may be analyzed and traced to original independent ele- 
ments in the language, to deny their present existence as compounds, 
and to assert, as some recent grammarians have done, that there are in 
English but two tenses, the present and the past. As in Chemistry, an 
alkali and an acid, when combined, form a compound with properties 
not found in either of the ingredients, so in language, particular com- 
binations of words acquire by usage new meanings not possessed by 
the words taken singly. The phrase "I shall be/' meant, originally, 
"I am obliged to be," and the connection between these two ideas may 
be very ingeniously and truly traced. But the phrase now expresses 
simply and absolutely the idea of futurity, without any sort of obliga- 
tion. The man who says "I shall be in New York to-morrow," conveys 
by the words shall be precisely what he would by the Latin ero. The 
former is just as much the future tense of the verb to be as the latter is 
of the verb esse. To parse shall as a verb in the present tense, and be 
in the infinitive, would be just as erroneous as to deny person to the 
Hebrew verb, because the forms of the persons may be analyzed, and 
the personal pronouns clearly detected in the terminations, and sepa- 
rated, if needs be, from the rest of the verb. 

The same reasoning will apply to the proposed analysis of the other 
compound forms, do lore, did love, have loved, have been, &q. The 
object aimed at is simplification. The writers in question seem, at first 
sight, to accomplish their end, for they apparently despatch the whole 
verb, moods, tenses, and all, in a single sweeping paragraph. But in 
the end, the learner finds he has quite as much to learn in detached 
and unconnected parcels, as he had before under a systematic and 
orderly arrangement. He has gained the simplicity of the monosyl- 
labic Chinese in exchange for the complex forms and combinations of 
the Arabic or the Greek ! (Page 60.) 

21. The Subjunctive Mood. 
It will be noticed that what is called in the text the Regular form 
of the Subjunctive, is merely the Indicative with some conjunction 
prefixed expressing doubt or contingency. This form extends through 
all the six tenses. The propriety of considering this form as a distinct 
mood has been very much questioned. Writers on English grammar 
are divided on the subject, and it may be fairly considered an open 
question. Both forms, therefore, are presented, for the convenience of 
those teachers who prefer to teach both. At the same time the forms 



APPENDIX. 195 

are so separated that those who choose, can omit the Regular form, 
and require the pupil merely to commit the other. 

The Subjunctive form of this mood is limited in the active to the 
Present tense, and in the passive to the Present and Past tenses. It is 
found also of course in the Present and Past tenses of the verb to be. 
Some few writers have contended for the use of this form in the Perfect. 
But the great weight of authority is against it. (Page 62.) 

22. The Nature of the Conjunctions. 
It is a mistake to suppose that the conjunctions and prepositions 
serve merely to connect the other parts of a sentence without any signi- 
ficancy of their own. These words were all no doubt originally other 
parts of speech, viz. : verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Most of them may 
be distinctly traced, and the meaning of the original recognised in the 
ra^a'ern abbreviations. Thus, if is the imperative of the Saxon gifan, 
to give. " If it is fair to-morrow, I will go out," means "give (grant) 
it to be fair to-morrow/' &e. Still, as the original words from which 
the conjunctions and prepositions are derived are mostly obsolete, these 
words are to be now regarded in reference to their present use, and not 
to their original character. Thus, to require a child to parse if as the 
imperative of the verb gifan, to give, and unless as the imperative of 
the verb onlesan, to dismiss, would only serve to perplex and embarrass. 
Where, however, the words are still in current use in the language, the 
case is different, and it becomes extremely doubtful whether they ought 
to be considered as prepositions and conjunctions, or whether they 
ought not to be classed among other parts of speech according to their 
obvious meaning. Examples of this sort are, except, excepting, regard- 
ing, touching, respecting, provided, notwithstanding, &c. (Page 77.) 

23. The Derivation of Words. 
This part of Etymology has assumed so much importance as to 
become a separate branch of study, and several excellent works on the 
subject have been prepared. In like manner, the Spelling Book and 
the Dictionary may be considered as having grown out of a particular 
branch of Orthography. In consequence of the existence of separate 
works on these points, they are passed over in Grammar more cursorily 
than they would otherwise be. Still it is not deemed expedient to. pass 
them over altogether. As a few of the most important rules for Spell- 
ing were given, so a very brief summary will be presented of some of 
the most essential principles of Derivation. (Page 84.) 

24. Order of the Rules in Syntax. 
In the old grammars, Syntax was divided in Concord and Govern- 
ment. By Concord was meant the agreement of one word with another 
in gender, number, case, or person. By Government was meant the 



196 APPENDIX. 

power which our word had of determining the mood, tense, or case of 
another. The rules of Syntax were then classified and arranged 
according to this division. To adhere to such a division, however, 
occasions many serious inconveniences. Subjects intimately connected 
in every other respect, are often widely sundered because of their differ- 
ence in this one unimportant particular. By the same arbitrary 
arrangement, rules of essential importance, which the pupil must know 
before he can make any progress in parsing, are thrown far forward in 
the book, quite beyond his reach, except by wading through a mass of 
rules which he is not yet qualified to comprehend. 

The best of the more recent grammarians, therefore, very wisely 
cease to insist upon this distribution, and practically adopt that which 
arises naturally from the anatysis of a simple sentence. The principal 
parts of a sentence are the subject, the attribute, and the object, in other 
words the nominative, the verb, and the objective. The agreement of 
the verb with its nominative, and the government of the objective case, 
therefore, demand the immediate attention of the pupil, at the very 
threshold of syntax. As soon as he has learned to resolve simple 
sentences, he is prepared for those which are more complex. This 
complexity arises either from »the combination of several simple sen- 
tences into one, or from connecting various adjuncts with the principal 
parts of a sentence. Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun, 
the adverb with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, 
&g. In this manner, the various leading rules arise nearly in the order 
in which the} r are wanted by the pupil, while under each leading rule 
are given all the exceptions and subsidiary rules naturally connected 
with the subject. This arrangement may not be as strictly logical as 
the former, but its practical advantages are such that it bids fair to be 
generally adopted. 

In illustration of these remarks let us suppose a case. The simplest 
form of a sentence is that presented in the words " John writes." The 
formula here given is the crystallizing centre around which all the 
parts of a sentence, no matter how complicated, necessarily cluster. It 
is, therefore, the starting point in every attempt at grammatical analysis. 
In accordance with this view of the subject, the rules which apply to 
such a sentence are made to form the first two rules of syntax. " John 
writes letters" furnishes another step in the analysis, and leads to the 
third rule, relating to the government of the objective case. " John 
writes letters in haste," introduces rule fourth, relative to prepositions. 
In like manner, without repeating the whole sentence, introducing the 
clause "by his father's permission," creates a necessity for rule fifth-, 
providing for the government of the possessive. " To his brother 
Thomas," presents a case of apposition, rule sixth. The sentence may 
be conceived not unnaturally as running on thus : "In which (Pronoun, 
Rule 7th), after a (Article, Rule 8th), long (Adjective, Rule 9th) story 
about those (Adjective Pronoun, Rule 10th) sports, happening (Parti- 
ciple, Rule 11th) suddenly (Adverb, Rule 12th) to remember (Infinitive, 



APPENDIX. 197 

Rule 13th), he stops short, and (Conjunction, Rule 14th) exclaims, oh! 
(Interjection) did you ever hear/' &c. In this way, step by step, the 
sentence increases in complexity, every new clause giving rise to a new 
rule in the order in which it seems naturally to be wanted. 

The fourteen rules, thus rapidly referred to, are those which the 
learner needs at every step in parsing, which he must have at his 
tongue's end and quote on all occasions. They are short and simple, 
none of them requiring a greater effort either of the memory or the 
understanding than the rule that "a verb agrees with its nominative 
case in number and person." At the same time they are comprehensive, 
covering fairly the whole ground of syntax. All the subordinate and 
subsidiary rules and exceptions are arranged under these . fourteen 
primary rules, in such order as seems best suited to combine conve- 
nience of reference with accuracy and fulness of detail. (Page 89.) 

25. The Case Absolute. 
The case absolute, in almost all languages except the English, is 
some other than the nominative. Thus, in the Saxon it is the dative, 
in the Latin it is the ablative, in the Greek, and in most of the Oriental 
languages, it is the genitive. (Page 90.) 

26. The Subject of the Infinitive Mood. 
The Infinitive mood in English has no subject. In this respect it 
differs from the classical and many other languages, in which the infi- 
nitive very commonly has a subject like the other moods, but is distin- 
guished by this peculiarity, that the subject is not in the nominative, 
but in the accusative or objective. (Page 93.) 

27. Causative Verbs. 
In most languages, there is a class of verbs derived from others, and 
called causatiues. If the original verb expresses any particular action, 
the causative denotes the causing of that action. This practice is not 
wholly unknown to the English. Thus, "to lay," signifies "to cause 
to lie;" "to raise," signifies "to cause to rise," <fec. Sometimes, also, 
an intransitive verb, without undergoing any change of form, assumes 
a causative meaning and becomes transitive; as, "to walk a horse," 
meaning "to cause him to walk." The construction last mentioned is 
sometimes adopted where good usage hardly warrants it; as, "to grow 
cotton," meaning "to cause it to grow." It would be better to avoid 
an expression which is, at least, of doubtful authority, and to use some 
other word, such as to raise, &g. (Page 100.) 

2$. The Direct and the Indirect Object. 
Grammarians have sometimes distinguished between the "direct" 
object and the "indirect." Thus, "Give a book to me." The direct 
17* 



198 APPENDIX. 

object of the verb is " book," the indirect object is " me." This indirect 
object in most languages forms a distinct case, and is governed by the 
verb equally with the direct object. In English, it is always governed 
by a preposition. There is, in a few instances, an ellipsis of the prepo- 
sition, which has led some erroneously to suppose that both cases are 
governed by the verb ; as, "Give (to) me a book," "Teach (to) me 
grammar," &c. 

In the passive voice, the direct object becomes the nominative, but 
the indirect remains in the same construction, governed by the prepo- 
sition ; as, " The book is given to me." There seems to have been a 
tendency in the language to allow, in the passive, the indirect object to 
become the nominative, and let the direct object remain, governed by 
the verb; as, active, "To teach grammar to me," passive, " I am taught 
grammar." Other instances are found in the expressions, " I was asked 
a question," "I was denied the privilege," "I have been offered a 
situation," &e. This usage is against the genius of the language, and 
should not be encouraged. 

In parsing sentences which contain the objective construed with a 
verb in the passive voice, some grammarians consider the objective as 
governed by the passive, others as governed by some preposition 
understood. Thus, " He is taught (in) grammar," that is, instructed 
in grammar. (Page 103.) 

29. The Use of Worth as an Adjective. 

The last example cited in the text is somewhat disputed and not very 
clear. "Worth" appears to be an adjective, because it evidently quali- 
fies the noun, and may itself be qualified by an adverb ; as, " He had a 
wife well worth the confidence which he placed in her." Here, "well" 
qualifies worth, and " worth" qualifies wife, just as clearly as if it were 
"worthy." The construction, too, seems precisely analogous to the 
following: "This deed is no more worthy (of) heaven, than thou art 
worthy (of) her." As in the latter case there is an evident ellipsis of 
the preposition, the most natural solution of the former seems to be to 
say, that "of" is omitted, and that "worth," by an anomalous usage, 
is employed in the sense of "worthy," and is an adjective. 

There is another usage of "worth," entirely distinct from the fore- 
going. In the phrase, "Wo worth the chase," &c, it is agreed uni- 
versally that "worth" is the Saxon Imperative of the verb weorthan, 
meaning simply be to, or betide, "Wo be (to) the chase," "Wo betide the 
chase," <fcc. (Page 103.) 

30. Use of the Prepositions. 
Many words derived from the Latin and Greek, are compounded with 
a preposition. Some writers are disposed in such cases to adopt the 
classical usage, and make the following preposition correspond to the 



APPENDIX. 199 

one found in the compound; as, "averse from," "depend from,' 7 <fec. 
This is not according to the idiom of the language, which requires a 
preposition corresponding to the actual, present meaning of the whole 
word, and not to the original meaning of its constituent parts. "Averse" 
meant, originally, "turned from,-" it now means "opposed," "disin- 
clined," and should be followed by " to." " Depend" meant, originally, 
"hang down from;" it- now means "rely upon," "lean upon?" &c. 

The usages of the language in regard to the prepositions are exceed- 
ingly various, and cannot be fully enumerated in an elementary work 
like the present. The more advanced student, who wishes to be accu- 
rate in this particular, should have by him some work of reference of 
standard authority, containing ample quotations from the best authors. 
The list in the text contains a few of the most common of these usages. 
(Page 104.) 

31. Nouns and Pronouns used indefinitely after the Infinitive. 
It is not easy to say in what case the noun is in such sentences. 
The analogy of the Latin would seem to indicate the objective. Thus, 
" Not to know what happened in past 3 r ears, is to be always" a child," 
Latin, "semper esse puer&m" In like manner, in English we say, 
" Its being me. need make no change in your determination." (Page 
113.) 

32. Tse Construction of the Participle, 
A participle has the construction of an adjective, inasmuch as it 
qualifies a noun and belongs to it. This noun is the subject of the 
participle (p. 90, n. 5). It holds the same relation to the participle 
that the nominative does to a verb. The participle, moreover, if it be 
transitive, may have not only a subject, but an object, which it governs 
in the objective case. Thus, " James, having icritten his letter, sent it 
to the Post-office." Here, " having written," like an adjective, belongs 
to "James," as its subject, and at the same time, as part of a transitive 
verb, retains its government of " letter." 

A participle is often used as a noun. When so used, it is subject to 
most of the other constructions of nouns. It is found both in the 
nominative and objective cases; as, u In writing letters, he soon became 
expert," " Writing letters is easier than writing compositions." In the 
first of these examples, "writing" is used as a noun in the objective 
case, and governed by "in:" in the other it is also used as a^noun, 
in the nominative case to "is." It is also found like a noun governing 
another noun in the possessive case; as, "Much depends on John's 
writing his letters rapidly." In all these instances, the participle, as a 
part of the verb, retains its government of the objective, and may even 
be qualified by an adverb. Nor is this double use of a word without 
analogy. The same thing occurs when the infinitive mood is used as a 
noun. Thus, " To write letters is easy." Here, " to write," as a noun, 



200 APPENDIX. 

is nominative to "is," and at the same time, as a verb, governs "letters." 
It is sometimes said, in regard to the constructions mentioned in the 
beginning of this paragraph, that the subject or object of the verb is 
not the participle, but the participle with its adjuncts. Thus, in the 
first example, it is not "writing," merely, that is spoken of, but " writing 
letters." This is true. But it is equally true, when the subject is an 
infinitive, or even a noun. "To see the sun is pleasant." What is 
pleasant? Not simply "to see," but "to see the sun." In like manner, 
if we say, "The sight of the sun is pleasant," it is not simply "sight" 
which is pleasant, but "the sight of the sun." Still, no one, in this 
last example, would think of parsing ail these five words together as 
the nominative to the verb. An an exercise in logic, it might be profit- 
able enough. But as an exercise in grammar, most teachers would 
regard it as impracticable and useless. If, then, the noun, while the 
subject or the object of the verb, may have its adjuncts and dependent 
words, in like manner, and for equal reasons, may the infinitive and 
the participle, when used as nouns. (Page 128.) 

33. The Sign of the Infinitive Mood. 
The preposition to, which is used in making the form called the 
infinitive mood, and which is generally called the sign of the infinitive 
mood, is not to be parsed by itself, but with the verb. There seems to 
be no more incongruity in thus combining a verb and a preposition, 
than in combining an adverb and a preposition; as, "at once," or in 
combining a verb and its auxiliary. Such combinations are in fact 
among the most common contrivances of language. (Page 134.) 

34. The Conjunction As. 

Much difference of opinion exists respecting the true nature of the 
word as, many grammarians of high authority calling it in certain 
circumstances a relative pronoun, equivalent to who or ichich. Others 
again (and the author reckons himself in the number) prefer to consider 
it in such sentences a conjunction, and explain the construction by 
ellipsis. Although it is difficult in all cases to supply an ellipsis which 
shall be perfectly satisfactory, yet the difficulty seems less than that of 
considering as a pronoun. Thus, "Shun such as (those are, who) are 
vicious," " To as many as (are those, who) received him." The ellipsis 
is often that of the indefinite it. Thus, "-4s (it) concerns me," "As 
(it) regards me," "As (it) appears," "As (it) follows." The usage is 
not entirely uniform in regard to the verb "follows." In giving a 
specification of particulars, almost all good writers use the phrase 
"as follows." Still, there are some writers of high authority, who 
make the verb plural when the antecedent word is so; as, " The words 
were as follow." "As follows," however, is far more common, the 
indefinite "it" being understood. 

Sometimes, as is preceded by such, or some other definite antecedent, 



APPENDIX. 201 

limiting the assertion to a part of a certain class of objects, and requir- 
ing the same definite limitation in the succeeding clause. In this case, 
it is not proper to supply the ellipsis by the indefinite "it," but by a 
word corresponding to the one used in the correlative clause. Hence, 
if the antecedent is plural, the word to be supplied is plural, and the 
verb must be so too. Thus, "Such (men) as (those who) follow a pro- 
fession, " "Such of his censures only, as (those which) concern my. 
friend." (Page 137.) 

35. Is Than ever a Preposition? 
After than there is almost always an ellipsis of several words. In 
supplying these words, the latter clause must be made analogous to the 
preceding; as, "John has written more than James (has ivritten)." 
The only exception to this is in the use of the relative who, which 
sometimes becomes whom, where the corresponding clause requires the 
nominative ; as, " Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." If the 
personal pronoun be substituted for the relative, it would be in the 
nominative case; thus, "None sat higher than he (did)." The con- 
struction of the relative in such cases seems to be a well established 
usage of the language. In such a sentence I would not call the con- 
junction a preposition, but in parsing the relative I would say, that 
"than is sometimes followed by whom, even when the corresponding 
clause requires the nominative." (Page 137.) 



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